East Africa
Eastern Africa
Countries
Territories
Time zonesUTC+02:00
UTC+03:00
UTC+04:00

East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa:[1]

Scientific consensus states the region of East Africa is where anatomically modern humans first evolved circa 200,000 years ago before migrating northwards out of Africa.

Due to the historical Omani Empire and colonial territories of the British East Africa Protectorate and German East Africa, the term East Africa is often (especially in the English language) used to specifically refer to the area now comprising the three countries of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.[2][3][4][5] However, this has never been the convention in many other languages, where the term generally had a wider, strictly geographic context and therefore typically included Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12]

Geography and climate

Image of the region between Lake Victoria (on the right) and Lakes Edward, Kivu and Tanganyika (from north to south) showing dense vegetation (bright green) and fires (red).

Some parts of East Africa have been renowned for their concentrations of wild animals, such as the "big five": the elephant, buffalo, lion, black rhinoceros,[22] and leopard, though populations have been declining under increased stress in recent times, particularly those of the rhino and elephant.

The geography of East Africa is often stunning and scenic. Shaped by global plate tectonic forces that have created the East African Rift, East Africa is the site of Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya, the two tallest peaks in Africa. It also includes the world's second largest freshwater lake, Lake Victoria, and the world's second deepest lake, Lake Tanganyika.

The climate of East Africa is rather atypical of equatorial regions. It is generally arid or semi-arid with rainfall totals across much of the lowland regions below 600 mm per year. In fact, on the coast of Somalia, many years can go by without any rain whatsoever.[23] The causes of the low rainfall totals are not fully understood. One factor is presence of the Somali Jet (a fast wind system) in boreal summer, which brings cool southern hemisphere air into East Africa.[24] A second cause is the presence of east to west river valleys in the East African Rift, which channel strong moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean away from East Africa and towards the Congo Basin rainforest.[25] Elsewhere the annual rainfall generally increases towards the south and with altitude, being around 400 mm (16 in) at Mogadishu and 1,200 mm (47 in) at Mombasa on the coast, whilst inland it increases from around 130 mm (5 in) at Garoowe to over 1,100 mm (43 in) at Moshi near Kilimanjaro. Most of the rain falls in two distinct wet seasons, one centred on April and the other in October or November. This is usually attributed to the passage of the Intertropical Convergence Zone across the region in those months, but it may also be analogous to the autumn monsoon rains of parts of Sri Lanka, Vietnam, and the Brazilian Nordeste.

West of the Rwenzoris and Ethiopian highlands, the rainfall pattern is more typically tropical, with rain throughout the year near the equator and a single wet season in most of the Ethiopian Highlands from June to September – contracting to July and August around Asmara. Annual rainfall here ranges from over 1,600 mm (63 in) on the western slopes to around 1,250 mm (49 in) at Addis Ababa and 550 mm (22 in) at Asmara. In the high mountains rainfall can be over 2,500 mm (98 in).

Rainfall in East Africa is characterised by two main rainfall seasons, the long rains from March–May and the short rains from October- December. Rainfall variability is influenced by both El Niño events and a positive Indian Ocean Dipole. El Nino events tend to increase rainfall except in the northern and western parts of the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands, where they produce drought and poor Nile floods.[26] Similarly, a positive Indian Ocean Dipole result in warm sea-surface temperatures off the coast of East Africa and lead to increased rainfall over East Africa.[27] Temperatures in East Africa, except on the hot and generally humid coastal belt, are moderate, with maxima of around 25 °C (77 °F) and minima of 15 °C (59 °F) at an altitude of 1,500 metres (4,921 ft). At altitudes of above 2,500 metres (8,202 ft), frosts are common during the dry season and maxima typically about 21 °C (70 °F) or less.

The unique geography and apparent suitability for farming made East Africa a target for European exploration, exploitation and colonialization in the nineteenth century. Today, tourism is an important part of the economies of Kenya, Tanzania, Seychelles, and Uganda. The easternmost point of the continent, that is Ras Hafun in Somalia, is of archaeological, historical and economical importance.[28][29]

History

Prehistory

According to the theory of the recent African origin of modern humans, the predominantly held belief among most archaeologists, East Africa in the area of the African Great Lakes is where anatomically modern humans first appeared.[30] There are differing theories on whether there was a single exodus or several; a multiple dispersal model involves the Southern Dispersal theory.[31] Some researchers have suggested that North Africa was the region of Africa from which modern humans who first trekked out of the continent.[32]

According to both genetic and fossil evidence, it has been posited that archaic Homo sapiens evolved into anatomically modern humans in the Horn of Africa around 200,000 years ago and dispersed from there.[33][34] The recognition of Homo sapiens idaltu and Omo Kibish as anatomically modern humans would justify the description of contemporary humans with the subspecies name Homo sapiens sapiens. Because of their early dating and unique physical characteristics idaltu and kibish represent the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans as suggested by the Out-of-Africa theory.[35][36][37][38]

The Bab-el-Mandeb crossing in the Red Sea: now some 12 miles (19 km) wide, narrower in prehistory.

In 2017 finds of modern human remains, dating to ca 300,000 years ago in Jebel Irhoud in Morocco, suggested that modern humans arose earlier and possibly in a larger area of Africa than previously thought.[39]

East Africa is one of the earliest regions where Homo sapiens are believed to have lived. Evidence was found in 2018, dating to about 320,000 years ago, at the Kenyan site of Olorgesailie, of the early emergence of modern behaviors associated with Homo sapiens, including: long-distance trade networks (involving goods such as obsidian), the use of pigments, and the possible making of projectile points. It is observed by the authors of three 2018 studies on the site, that the evidence of these behaviors is approximately contemporary to the earliest known Homo sapiens fossil remains from Africa (such as at Jebel Irhoud and Florisbad), and they suggest that complex and modern behaviors had already begun in Africa around the time of the emergence of Homo sapiens.[40][41][42]

In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260 CT scans, of a virtual skull shape of the last common human ancestor to modern humans/H. sapiens, representative of the earliest Homo sapiens, and suggested that Homo sapiens arose between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through a merging of populations in South and East Africa.[43][44]

The migration route of the "Out of Africa" theory probably occurred in East Africa however through Bab el Mandeb

Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (19 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts.

Some of the earliest hominin skeletal remains have been found in the wider region, including fossils discovered in the Awash Valley of Ethiopia, as well as in the Koobi Fora in Kenya and Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.

The southern part of East Africa was occupied until recent times by Khoisan hunter-gatherers, whereas in the Ethiopian Highlands the donkey and such crop plants as teff allowed the beginning of agriculture around 7,000 BCE.[45] Lowland barriers and diseases carried by the tsetse fly, however, prevented the donkey and agriculture from spreading southwards. Only in quite recent times has agriculture spread to the more humid regions south of the equator, through the spread of cattle, sheep and crops such as millet. Language distributions suggest that this most likely occurred from Sudan into the African Great Lakes region, since the Nilotic languages spoken by these pre-Bantu farmers have their closest relatives in the middle Nile basin.

Ancient history

Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and the Red Sea coast of Sudan are considered the most likely location of the land known to the Ancient Egyptians as Punt.[46] The old kingdom's first mention dates to the 25th century BCE.[47] The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut.

The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire centered Eritrea and northern Ethiopia.[48] It existed from approximately 100–940 CE, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period c. 4th century BCE to achieve prominence by the 1st century CE. The kingdom is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. Aksum was at the time ruled by Zoskales, who also governed the port of Adulis.[49] The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency. The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom.

Bantu expansion

Between 2500 and 3000 years ago, Bantu-speaking peoples began a millennia-long series of migrations eastward from their homeland around southern Cameroon. This Bantu expansion introduced agriculture into much of the African Great Lakes region. During the following fifteen centuries, the Bantu slowly intensified farming and grazing over all suitable regions of East Africa, in the process making contact with Austronesian- and Arabic-speaking settlers on southern coastal areas. The latter also spread Islam to the coastal belt, but most Bantu remained African Traditional Religion adherents.

Early Iron Age findings in East and Southern Africa

Over a period of many centuries, most hunting-foraging peoples were displaced and absorbed by incoming Bantu communities, as well as by later Nilotic communities. The Bantu expansion was a long series of physical migrations, a diffusion of language and knowledge out into and in from neighboring populations, and a creation of new societal groups involving inter-marriage among communities and small groups moving to communities and small groups moving to new areas.[50]

After their movements from their original homeland in West Africa, Bantus also encountered in central east Africa peoples of Cushitic origin. As cattle terminology in use amongst the few modern Bantu pastoralist groups suggests, the Bantu migrants would acquire cattle from their new Cushitic neighbors. Linguistic evidence also indicates that Bantus most likely borrowed the custom of milking cattle directly from Cushitic peoples in the area.[51]

On the coastal section of the African Great Lakes region, another mixed Bantu community developed through contact with Muslim Arab and Persian traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and African Swahili City States.[52] The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many Afro-Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people. With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of Tanzania (particularly Zanzibar) and Kenya—a seaboard referred to as the Swahili Coast—the Bantu Swahili language contains many Arabic loan-words as a consequence of these interactions.[53]

The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the east coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of Rhapta, Azania and Menouthias[54] referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE,[55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62] ultimately giving rise to the name for Tanzania.[63][64] These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach central east Africa during their migration.[65]

Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large African Great Lakes kingdoms and states emerged, such as the Buganda[66] and Karagwe[66] kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania.

Modern history

Arab and Portuguese eras

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to explore the region of current-day Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique by sea. Vasco da Gama visited Mombasa in 1498. Da Gama's voyage was successful in reaching India, which permitted the Portuguese to trade with the Far East directly by sea. This in turn challenged the older trading networks of mixed land and sea routes, such as the spice trade routes which utilized the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and camel caravans to reach the eastern Mediterranean.[67]

The Republic of Venice had gained control over much of the trade routes between Europe and Asia. After traditional land routes to India had been closed by the Ottoman Turks, Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by da Gama to break the once Venetian trading monopoly.[68] Portuguese rule in the African Great Lakes region focused mainly on a coastal strip centered around Mombasa. The Portuguese presence in the area officially began after 1505, when flagships under the command of Don Francisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa, an island located in what is now southern Tanzania.

In March 1505, having received from Manuel I of Portugal the appointment of viceroy of the newly conquered territory in India, he set sail from Lisbon in command of a large and powerful fleet, and arrived in July at Quiloa (Kilwa), which yielded to him almost without a struggle. A much more vigorous resistance was offered by the Moors of Mombasa. However, the town was taken and destroyed, and its large treasures went to strengthen the resources of Almeida. Attacks followed on Hoja (now known as Ungwana, located at the mouth of the Tana River), Barawa, Angoche, Pate and other coastal towns until the western Indian Ocean was a safe haven for Portuguese commercial interests. At other places on his way, such as the island of Angediva, near Goa, and Cannanore, the Portuguese built forts, and adopted measures to secure the Portuguese supremacy.

Portugal's main goal on the Swahili coast was to take control of the spice trade from the Arabs. At this stage, the Portuguese presence in East Africa served the purposes of controlling trade within the Indian Ocean and securing the sea routes linking Europe to Asia. Portuguese naval vessels were very disruptive to the commerce of Portugal's enemies within the western Indian Ocean and were able to demand high tariffs on items transported through the sea due to their strategic control of ports and shipping lanes. The construction of Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593 was meant to solidify Portuguese hegemony in the region, but their influence was clipped by the British, Dutch and Omani Arab incursions into the Great Lakes region during the 17th century.

The Omani Arabs posed the most direct challenge to Portuguese influence in the African Great Lakes region.By this time, the Portuguese Empire had already lost its interest on the spice trade sea route due to the decreasing profitability of that business. The Arabs reclaimed much of the Indian Ocean trade, forcing the Portuguese to retreat south where they remained in Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique) as sole rulers until the 1975 independence of Mozambique.

Omani Arab colonization of the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts brought the once independent city-states under closer foreign scrutiny and domination than was experienced during the Portuguese period. Like their predecessors, the Omani Arabs were primarily able only to control the coastal areas, not the interior. However, the creation of clove plantations, intensification of the slave trade and relocation of the Omani capital to Zanzibar in 1839 by Seyyid Said had the effect of consolidating the Omani power in the region.[68]

Arab governance of all the major ports along the Swahili coast continued until British interests aimed particularly at ending the slave trade and creation of a wage-labour system began to put pressure on Omani rule. By the late nineteenth century, the slave trade on the open seas had been completely outlawed by the British and the Omani Arabs had little ability to resist the British navy's ability to enforce the directive. The Omani presence continued in Zanzibar and Pemba until the Zanzibar Revolution in 1964. However, the official Omani Arab presence in Kenya was checked by German and British seizure of key ports and creation of crucial trade alliances with influential local leaders in the 1880s.

Period of European imperialism

Map of British East Africa in 1911

Between the 19th and 20th century, East Africa became a theatre of competition between the major imperialistic European nations of the time. The three main colors of the African country were beige, red, and blue. The red stood for the English, blue stood for the French, and the beige stood for Germany during the period of colonialism. During the period of the Scramble for Africa, almost every country in the larger region to varying degrees became part of a European colonial empire.

Portugal had first established a strong presence in southern Mozambique and the Indian Ocean since the 15th century, while during this period their possessions increasingly grew including parts from the present northern Mozambique country, up to Mombasa in present-day Kenya. At Lake Malawi, they finally met the recently created British Protectorate of Nyasaland (nowadays Malawi), which surrounded the homonymous lake on three sides, leaving the Portuguese the control of lake's eastern coast. The British Empire set foot in the region's most exploitable and promising lands acquiring what is today Uganda, and Kenya. The Protectorate of Uganda and the Colony of Kenya were located in a rich farmland area mostly appropriate for the cultivation of cash crops like coffee and tea, as well as for animal husbandry with products produced from cattle and goats, such as goat meat, beef and milk. Moreover, this area had the potential for a significant residential expansion, being suitable for the relocation of a large number of British nationals to the region. Prevailing climatic conditions and the regions' geomorphology allowed the establishment of flourishing European style settlements like Nairobi, Vila Pery, Vila Junqueiro, Porto Amélia, Lourenço Marques and Entebbe.[69]

The French settled the largest island of the Indian Ocean (and the fourth-largest globally), Madagascar, along with a group of smaller islands nearby, namely Réunion and the Comoros.[70] Madagascar became part of the French colonial empire following two military campaigns against the Kingdom of Madagascar, which it initiated after persuading Britain to relinquish its interests in the island in exchange for control of Zanzibar off the coast of Tanganyika, an important island hub of the spices trade. The British also held a number of island colonies in the region, including the extended archipelago of Seychelles and the rich farming island of Mauritius, previously under the French sovereignty.

The German Empire gained control of a large area named German East Africa, comprising present-day Rwanda, Burundi and the mainland part of Tanzania named Tanganyika.[71] In 1922, the British gained a League of Nations mandate over Tanganyika which it administered until Independence was granted to Tanganyika in 1961. Following the Zanzibar Revolution of 1965, the independent state of Tanganyika formed the United Republic of Tanzania by creating a union between the mainland, and the island chain of Zanzibar. Zanzibar is now a semi-autonomous state in a union with the mainland which is collectively and commonly referred to as Tanzania. German East Africa, though very extensive, was not of such strategic importance as the British Crown's colonies to the north: the inhabitation of these lands was difficult and thus limited, mainly due to climatic conditions and the local geomorphology. Italy gained control of various parts of Somalia in the 1880s. The southern three-fourths of Somalia became an Italian protectorate (Italian Somaliland).

Meanwhile, in 1884, a narrow coastal strip of Somaliland came under British control (British Somaliland). This Somaliland protectorate was just opposite the British colony of Aden on the Arabian Peninsula. With these territories secured, Britain was able to serve as gatekeeper of the sea lane leading to British India. In 1890, beginning with the purchase of the small port town of (Asseb) from a local sultan in Eritrea, the Italians colonized all of Eritrea.

In 1895, from bases in Somalia and Eritrea, the Italians launched the First Italo–Ethiopian War against the Orthodox Empire of Ethiopia. By 1896, the war had become a total disaster for the Italians and Ethiopia was able to retain its independence. Ethiopia remained independent until 1936 when, after the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, it became part of Italian East Africa. The Italian occupation of Ethiopia ended in 1941 during World War II as part of the East African Campaign.The French also staked out an East African outpost on the route to French Indochina. Starting in the 1850s, the small protectorate of Djibouti became French Somaliland in 1897.

Post-colonial period

Climate

Eastern Africa has a diverse climate change that consist of hot, dry desert regions, cooler, and highlands.[72]

There are movies that have depicted East Africa in various forms. 7 Days in Entebbe, The Last King of Scotland, Out of Africa, Queen of Katwe, The Constant Gardener, Hotel Rwanda, The Good Lie, and Captain Phillips are a few of the critically acclaimed movies.[73] In the video games Halo 2 and Halo 3, East Africa is one of the central locations for the campaigns.[74]

Culture

Art

Architecture

Clothing

Cuisine

Music

Religion

Languages

In the Horn of Africa and Nile Valley, Afroasiatic languages predominate, including languages of the family's Cushitic (such as Beja, Oromo and Somali), Semitic (such as Amharic, Arabic and Tigrinya), and Omotic (such as Wolaytta) branches.

In the African Great Lakes region, Niger-Congo languages of the Bantu branch are most widely spoken. Among these languages are Kikuyu, Luhya, Kinyarwanda, Kirundi, Kisukuma, Luganda and many others. Swahili, with at least 80 million speakers as a first or second language, is an important trade language in the Great Lakes area. It has official status in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.

Nilotic languages, such as Luo, Kalenjin, Maasai and Nuer, are spoken in lesser numbers, primarily in the African Great Lakes and Nile Valley.

Indo-European languages, such as English, French, Portuguese and Italian, remain important in higher institutions in some parts of the larger region.

Demographics

Eastern Africa had an estimated population of 260 million in 2000. This was projected to reach 890 million by 2050, with an average growth rate of 2.5% per annum. The 2000 population is expected to quintuple over the course of the 21st century, to 1.6 billion as of 2100 (UN estimates as of 2017).[75] In Ethiopia, there is an estimated population of 102 million as of 2016.[76]

Architecture

Further information in the sections of Architecture of Africa:

Science and technology

Further information in the sections of History of science and technology in Africa:

Conflicts

Since the end of colonialism, several East African countries were riven with military coups, ethnic violence and oppressive dictators. The region has endured the following post-colonial conflicts:

Northern East Africa
(Horn of Africa)
Northern East Africa
(Sudan)
South Sudan
Southern East Africa (Southeast Africa)
Outside Southeast Africa with Southeast African participation

Kenya has enjoyed relatively stable governance. However, politics have been turbulent at times, including the attempted coup d'état in 1982 and the 2007 election riots.

Tanzania has known stable government since independence although there are significant political and religious tensions resulting from the political union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous state in the United Republic of Tanzania.

Tanzania and Uganda fought the Uganda–Tanzania War in 1978–1979, which led to the removal of Uganda's despotic leader Idi Amin.

Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda have each faced instability and ethnic conflict since independence, most notably the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the 1993 Burundi genocide and subsequent Burundian Civil War. Rwanda and Uganda continue to be involved in related conflicts outside the region.

Djibouti, as well as the Puntland and Somaliland regions of Somalia, have also seen relative stability.[77][78][79]

South Sudan peacefully seceded from the Sudan in 2011, six and a half years after a peace agreement ended the Second Sudanese Civil War. South Sudanese independence was nearly derailed by the South Kordofan conflict, particularly a dispute over the status of the Abyei Area, and both Abyei and South Kordofan's Nuba Hills remained a source of tension between Juba and Khartoum as of 2011.[80]

Countries, capitals and largest cities

According to the CIA, as of 2017, the countries in the eastern Africa region have a total population of around 537.9 million inhabitants.[81]

Country / TerritoryCapitalLargest city by population[82]Second largest city by population[82]
East African Community
 BurundiGitega (22,989; 2012 est.)BujumburaMuyinga
 Democratic Republic of the CongoKinshasaKinshasaMbuji-Mayi
 KenyaNairobiNairobiMombasa (915,101; 2009 est.)
 RwandaKigaliKigaliGitarama
 South SudanJubaJubaMalakal
 TanzaniaDodomaDar es SalaamMwanza
 UgandaKampala (1,507,114; 2014 est.)KampalaGulu
Horn of Africa
 DjiboutiDjibouti City (529,000; 2018 est.)Djibouti CityAli Sabieh
 EritreaAsmaraAsmaraKeren
 EthiopiaAddis AbabaAddis Ababa (2,739,551; 2007 est.)Dire Dawa
 SomaliaMogadishu (2,572,125)MogadishuHargeisa
Indian Ocean
 British Indian Ocean TerritoryCamp Thunder CoveCamp Thunder Cove–
 ComorosMoroniMoroniMutsamudu
 French Southern TerritoriesSaint PierrePort-aux-Français–
 MadagascarAntananarivo (1,015,140; 2005 est.)AntananarivoToamasina (3,133,518; 2009 est.)
 MauritiusPort LouisPort LouisBeau Bassin-Rose Hill
 MayotteMamoudzouMamoudzouDzaoudzi
 RéunionSaint DenisSaint DenisSaint Paul
 SeychellesVictoriaVictoriaAnse Etoile
Yemen SocotraHadibuHadibuQalansiyah
Northeast Africa
 SudanKhartoumOmdurmanKhartoum
Southeast Africa
 MalawiLilongwe (868,800; 2012 est.)LilongweBlantyre (783,296; 2012 est.)
 MozambiqueMaputoMaputoNampula
 ZambiaLusakaLusakaKitwe
 ZimbabweHarareHarareBulawayo

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to East Africa.

References

  1. ↑ "United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)". un.org. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 22 September 2008.
  2. ↑ "East Africa". The New Oxford Dictionary of English, Judy Pearsall, ed. 2001. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; p. 582. "The eastern part of the African continent, especially the countries of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania."
  3. ↑ Robert M. Maxon, East Africa: An Introductory History, 2 Revised edition, (West Virginia University: 1994), p. 1
  4. ↑ Mary Fitzpatrick and Tom Parkinson, Lonely Planet East Africa, 7th edition, (Lonely Planet Publications: 2006), p. 13
  5. ↑ Stock, Africa South of the Sahara, Second Ed., p. 24
  6. ↑ Somaliland is not included in the United Nations geoscheme, as it is internationally recognized as a part of Somalia.
  7. ↑ "East Africa". Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary, 3rd ed. 2001. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc.; p. 339. "A term often used of the area now comprising the countries of Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and Somalia; sometimes used to include also other neighboring countries of E Africa."
  8. ↑ "East Africa Archived 9 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine". Encarta World English Dictionary [North American Edition] 2007. Microsoft Corporation. "[R]egion in east central Africa, usually taken to comprise Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, Tanzania, and Uganda". Archived 2009-10-31.
  9. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica, inc, Jacob E. Safra, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2002), p.61
  10. ↑ "East Africa". Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. 2003. The Gage Group Inc. "East Africa comprises ten countries: Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, and Kenya."
  11. ↑ FAO – East Africa Archived 21 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine: "With eight countries (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, the Sudan, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania),[31] East Africa covers a land area of 5.9 million square kilometres."
  12. ↑ Sandra Fullerton Joireman, Institutional Change in the Horn of Africa, (Universal-Publishers: 1997), p.1
  13. ↑ "East Africa Regional Overview". African Development Bank - Building today, a better Africa tomorrow. 8 June 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
  14. ↑ "Eastern Africa region". 17 August 2017.
  15. ↑ Robert Stock, Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation, (The Guildford Press; 2004), p. 26
  16. ↑ "IRIN – Horn of Africa". IRINnews. Archived from the original on 28 August 2010. Retrieved 14 April 2008.
  17. ↑ Michael Hodd, East Africa Handbook, 7th Edition, (Passport Books: 2002), p. 21: "To the north are the countries of the Horn of Africa comprising Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia."
  18. ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica, inc, Jacob E. Safra, The New Encyclopedia Britannica, (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2002), p.61: "The northern mountainous area, known as the Horn of Africa, comprises Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia and Somaliland."
  19. ↑ Sandra Fullerton Joireman, Institutional Change in the Horn of Africa, (Universal-Publishers: 1997), p.1: "The Horn of Africa encompasses the countries of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia. These countries share similar peoples, languages, and geographical endowments."
  20. ↑ "Overview of Module Twenty: Southern Africa". Exploring Africa. Archived from the original on 11 January 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  21. ↑ "Eastern Africa Power Pool" (PDF). EAPP. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 October 2016. Retrieved 15 October 2014.
  22. ↑ Emslie, R. (2012). Diceros bicornis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012.RLTS.T6557A16980917.en
  23. ↑ Dewar, Robert E.; Wallis, James R (1999). "Geographical patterning in interannual rainfall variability in the tropics and near tropics: An L-moments approach". Journal of Climate. 12 (12): 3457–3466. Bibcode:1999JCli...12.3457D. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1999)012<3457:gpoirv>2.0.co;2. S2CID 55652367.
  24. ↑ Yang, W., R. Seager, M. A. Cane, and B. Lyon, 2015: The Annual Cycle of East African Precipitation. J. Climate, 28, 2385–2404, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00484.1.
  25. ↑ Munday, C., Savage, N., Jones, R.G. et al. Valley formation aridifies East Africa and elevates Congo Basin rainfall. Nature 615, 276–279 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05662-5
  26. ↑ Davis, Mike (July 2002). Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World. Verso. pp. 263–266. ISBN 978-1-85984-382-6. Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
  27. ↑ Saji, N. H.; Goswami, B. N.; Vinayachandran, P. N.; Yamagata, T. (September 1999). "A dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean". Nature. 401 (6751): 360–363. Bibcode:1999Natur.401..360S. doi:10.1038/43854. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 16862108. S2CID 4427627. Archived from the original on 20 November 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
  28. ↑ Chittick, Neville (1975). An Archaeological Reconnaissance of the Horn: The British-Somali Expedition. pp. 117–133.
  29. ↑ "Somalia salt industry revives". Garowe Online. 7 March 2015. Archived from the original on 14 January 2016. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
  30. ↑ Liu H, Prugnolle F, Manica A, Balloux F (August 2006). "A geographically explicit genetic model of worldwide human-settlement history". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 79 (2): 230–7. doi:10.1086/505436. PMC 1559480. PMID 16826514.
  31. ↑ Searching for traces of the Southern Dispersal Archived 10 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine, by Dr. Marta Mirazón Lahr, et al.
  32. ↑ Balter M (January 2011). "Was North Africa the launch pad for modern human migrations?". Science. 331 (6013): 20–3. Bibcode:2011Sci...331...20B. doi:10.1126/science.331.6013.20. PMID 21212332.
  33. ↑ Ghirotto S; Penso-Dolfin L; Barbujani G (August 2011). "Genomic evidence for an African expansion of anatomically modern humans by a Southern route". Human Biology. 83 (4): 477–89. doi:10.3378/027.083.0403. PMID 21846205. S2CID 17344813. Archived from the original on 22 December 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019. Data on cranial morphology have been interpreted as suggesting that, before the main expansion from Africa through the Near East, anatomically modern humans may also have taken a Southern route from the Horn of Africa through the Arabian peninsula to India, Melanesia and Australia, about 100,000 yrs ago.
  34. ↑ Mellars, P; KC, Gori; M, Carr; PA, Soares; Richards, MB (June 2013). "Genetic and archaeological perspectives on the initial modern human colonization of southern Asia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (26): 10699–704. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11010699M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1306043110. PMC 3696785. PMID 23754394. These data support a coastally oriented dispersal of modern humans from eastern Africa to southern Asia ~60-50 thousand years ago (ka). This was associated with distinctively African microlithic and "backed-segment" technologies analogous to the African "Howiesons Poort" and related technologies, together with a range of distinctively "modern" cultural and symbolic features (highly shaped bone tools, personal ornaments, abstract artistic motifs, microblade technology, etc.), similar to those that accompanied the replacement of "archaic" Neanderthal by anatomically modern human populations in other regions of western Eurasia at a broadly similar date.
  35. ↑ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, B.; DeGusta, D.; Gilbert, H.; Richards, G. D.; Suwa, G.; Howell, F. C. (2003), "Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia", Nature, 423 (6491): 742–747, Bibcode:2003Natur.423..742W, doi:10.1038/nature01669, PMID 12802332, S2CID 4432091
  36. ↑ "Meet the Contenders for Earliest Modern Human". Smithsonian. 11 January 2012. Archived from the original on 2 June 2016. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
  37. ↑ Fleagle, John G.; Brown, Francis H.; McDougall, Ian (17 February 2005). "Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia" (PDF). Nature. 433 (7027): 733–736. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..733M. doi:10.1038/nature03258. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 15716951. S2CID 1454595.
  38. ↑ Hammond, Ashley S.; Royer, Danielle F.; Fleagle, John G. (July 2017). "The Omo-Kibish I pelvis". Journal of Human Evolution. 108: 199–219. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.04.004. ISSN 1095-8606. PMID 28552208.
  39. ↑ Gibbons, Ann (7 June 2017). "World's oldest Homo sapiens fossils found in Morocco". Science. doi:10.1126/science.356.6342.993. Archived from the original on 3 September 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2017.
  40. ↑ Chatterjee, Rhitu (15 March 2018). "Scientists Are Amazed By Stone Age Tools They Dug Up in Kenya". NPR. Archived from the original on 15 March 2018. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
  41. ↑ Yong, Ed (15 March 2018). "A Cultural Leap at the Dawn of Humanity – New finds from Kenya suggest that humans used long-distance trade networks, sophisticated tools, and symbolic pigments right from the dawn of our species". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 17 November 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
  42. ↑ Brooks AS, Yellen JE, Potts R, Behrensmeyer AK, Deino AL, Leslie DE, Ambrose SH, Ferguson JR, d'Errico F, Zipkin AM, Whittaker S, Post J, Veatch EG, Foecke K, Clark JB (2018). "Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age". Science. 360 (6384): 90–94. Bibcode:2018Sci...360...90B. doi:10.1126/science.aao2646. PMID 29545508.
  43. ↑ Zimmer, Carl (10 September 2019). "Scientists Find the Skull of Humanity's Ancestor — on a Computer – By comparing fossils and CT scans, researchers say they have reconstructed the skull of the last common forebear of modern humans". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
  44. ↑ Mounier, Aurélien; Lahr, Marta (2019). "Deciphering African late middle Pleistocene hominin diversity and the origin of our species". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 3406. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.3406M. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-11213-w. PMC 6736881. PMID 31506422.
  45. ↑ Diamond, Jared; Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fate of Human Societies; p. 103; ISBN 0-393-03891-2
  46. ↑ Andebrhan Welde Giorgis (2014). Eritrea at a Crossroads: A Narrative of Triumph, Betrayal and Hope. Strategic Book Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-62857-331-2. Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
  47. ↑ Najovits, Simson (2004) Egypt, trunk of the tree, Volume 2, Algora Publishing, p. 258, ISBN 087586256X.
  48. ↑ David Phillipson: revised by Michael DiBlasi (1 November 2012). Neil Asher Silberman (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 48. ISBN 9780199735785. Archived from the original on 6 February 2015. Retrieved 11 November 2016.
  49. ↑ Periplus of the Erythreaean Sea Archived 14 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, chs. 4, 5
  50. ↑ "The Bantu Migration | World Civilization". courses.lumenlearning.com. Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  51. ↑ J. D. Fage, A history of Africa, Routledge, 2002, p.29
  52. ↑ James De Vere Allen (1993). Swahili Origins: Swahili Culture & the Shungwaya Phenomenon. James Currey Publishers. ISBN 978-0-85255-075-5. Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 23 January 2018.
  53. ↑ Daniel Don Nanjira, African Foreign Policy and Diplomacy: From Antiquity to the 21st Century, ABC-CLIO, 2010, p.114
  54. ↑ Jens Finke (2010). The Rough Guide to Tanzania. Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-4053-8018-8.
  55. ↑ Casson, Lionel (1989). The Periplus Maris Erythraei. Lionel Casson. (Translation by H. Frisk, 1927, with updates and improvements and detailed notes). Princeton, Princeton University Press.
  56. ↑ Chami, F. A. (1999). "The Early Iron Age on Mafia Island and its relationship with the mainland." Azania Vol. XXXIV 1999, pp. 1–10.
  57. ↑ Chami, Felix A. 2002. "The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Paanchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." From: Red Sea Trade and Travel. The British Museum. Sunday 6 October 2002. Organised by The Society for Arabian Studies
  58. ↑ "Weilue: The Peoples of the West". depts.washington.edu. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
  59. ↑ Miller, J. Innes. 1969. Chapter 8: "The Cinnamon Route". In: The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire. Oxford: University Press. ISBN 0-19-814264-1
  60. ↑ Klein, Martin A.; Wesley Johnson, G. (8 January 2010). "Perspectives on the African past – Google Books". Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
  61. ↑ Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation. See especially Section 15 on Zesan = Azania and notes.
  62. ↑ Rich, Evelyn Jones; Wallerstein, Immanuel Maurice (2 July 1971). Africa: Tradition and Change. Random House School Division. ISBN 9780394009384. Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2015 – via Google Books.
  63. ↑ "isbn:0714611026 - Google Search". books.google.com.
  64. ↑ "isbn:1743213026 – Google Search". books.google.com.
  65. ↑ Gonzales, Rhonda M. (30 August 2009). Societies, religion, and history: central-east Tanzanians and the world they created, c. 200 BCE to 1800 CE. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231142427. Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2015 – via Google Books.
  66. 1 2 Roland Oliver, et al. "Africa South of the Equator", in Africa Since 1800. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 24–25.
  67. ↑ Killman, James; Bentley-Buckle, A. W. (1972). "A Portuguese wreck off Mombasa, Kenya". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 1: 153–157. doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1972.tb00687.x.
  68. 1 2 Lane, Frederic Chapin (November 1973). Venice, A Maritime Republic. JHU Press. ISBN 9780801814600.
  69. ↑ Cunningham, James Frederick (1905). "Uganda and Its Peoples: Notes on the Protectorate of Uganda, Especially the Anthropology and Ethnology of Its Indigenous Races".
  70. ↑ Fabian, Steven (2021). "Islands in a Cosmopolitan Sea: A History of the Comoros by Iain Walker (Review)". African Studies Review. 64 (2): E30–E31. doi:10.1017/asr.2021.11. S2CID 236357241.
  71. ↑ Leonard V Smith (September 2020). "Book review. Revenants of the German Empire: Colonial Germans, Imperialism, and the League of Nations". German History. 38 (3). doi:10.1093/gerhis/ghaa052.
  72. ↑ "Climate risk report for the East Africa region - Ethiopia | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 11 July 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2023.
  73. ↑ "7 Days in Entebbe and 13 Other Movies Set In East Africa". tripindigo.com. 23 April 2018. Archived from the original on 16 October 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2021.
  74. ↑ "New Mombasa". Halo Waypoint. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2020.
  75. ↑ "World Population Prospects – Population Division – United Nations". esa.un.org. Archived from the original on 24 January 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
  76. ↑ "IFs Forecast – Version 7.00 – Google Public Data Explorer". Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
  77. ↑ Canada's Africa Oil starts Somalia seismic survey Archived 22 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine – Reuters
  78. ↑ "Economic Recovery and the Role of the State" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 January 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  79. ↑ "Somalia: Somaliland appeals for 'cooperation with Puntland' a second time". Archived from the original on 31 January 2014.
  80. ↑ "Sudan's Omar Bashir warning over Abyei". BBC News. 11 July 2011. Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
  81. ↑ "The World Factbook – Population". CIA. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
  82. 1 2 "Population of capital cities and cities of 100,000 or more inhabitants". Demographic Yearbook 2015. United Nations Statistics Division. 2016. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2017.

Bibliography

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.