| Kru | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Ivory Coast, Liberia, Burkina Faso |
| Linguistic classification | Niger–Congo?
|
| Proto-language | Proto-Kru |
| Subdivisions |
|
| ISO 639-2 / 5 | kro |
| Glottolog | krua1234 (Kru) siam1242 (Siamou) |
 Kru languages, labeled as above | |
The Kru languages are spoken by the Kru people from the southeast of Liberia to the west of Ivory Coast.
Classification
According to Güldemann (2018), Kru lacks sufficient lexical resemblances and noun class resemblances to conclude a relationship with Niger-Congo. Glottolog considers Kru an independent language family.
Etymology
The term "Kru" is of unknown origin. According to Westermann (1952) it was used by Europeans to denote a number of tribes speaking related dialects. Marchese (1989) notes the fact that many of these peoples were recruited as "crew" by European seafarers; "the homonymy with crew is obvious, and is at least one source of the confusion among Europeans that there was a Kru/crew tribe".[1]
History
Andrew Dalby noted the historical importance of the Kru languages for their position at the crossroads of African-European interaction. He wrote that "Kru and associated languages were among the first to be encountered by European voyagers on what was then known as the Pepper Coast, a centre of the production and export of Guinea and melegueta pepper; a once staple African seaborne trade".[2] The Kru languages are known for some of the most complex tone systems in Africa, rivaled perhaps only by the Omotic languages.
Current status
Recent documentation has noted "Kru societies can now be found along the coast of Monrovia, Liberia to Bandama River in Côte d'Ivoire".[3] "Villages maintain their ties based on presumed common descent, reinforced by ceremonial exchanges and gifts".[3] The Kru people and their languages, although now many speak English (in Liberia) or French (in Côte d'Ivoire) as a second language, are said to be "dominant in the southwest region where the forest zone reaches the coastal lagoons".[3] The Kru people rely on the forest for farming, supplemented by hunting for their livelihood.
Subgroups and associated languages
The Kru languages include many subgroups such as Kuwaa, Grebo, Bassa, Belle, Belleh, Kwaa and many others. According to Breitbonde, categorization of communities based on cultural distinctiveness, historical or ethnic identity, and socio-political autonomy "may have brought about the large number of distinct Kru dialects; "Although the natives were in many respects similar in type and tribe, every village was an independent state; there was also very little intercommunication".[4] Breitbonde notes the Kru people were categorized based on their cultural distinctiveness, separate historical or ethnic identities, and social and political autonomy. This is the possible reason for so many subgroups of the Kru language. As noted by Fisiak, there is very little documentation on the Kru and associated languages.[5]
Marchese's (1989) classification of Kru languages is as follows.[6] Many of these languages are dialect clusters and are sometimes considered more than a single language.
Ethnologue adds Neyo, which may be closest to Dida or Godie.
Grammar
Kru word order is primarily subject-verb-object (SVO), but can also often be subject-object-verb (SOV).[6]
Comparative vocabulary
Sample basic vocabulary of 12 Kru languages from Marchese (1983):[7]
| Language | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | blood | bone | tree | water | eat | name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tepo | jíê | nω̂â | mɪ̂jã́ | ɲɛ́ | mɛ̂ | wũ̂t | dâblώ | klá | tûgbɛ̀ | nîjẽ́ | dî | dώ |
| Jrwe | ɟró | nω̃̂ã̂ | mɪ̃̂ã̂ | ɲɛ̃́ | mɛ̃̂ | wṹ | klώω̂ | klá | túwɛ̀ | nĩ́ẽ́ | dîdɛ̂ | ɲɔ̃́ |
| Guere | ɟrííē | dōṹ | mlâ | ɲnɪ̃̂ɛ̄̃ | mē̃õ̀ | ŋɔ̄̃ | ɲmɔ̄̃ | kpâ | tū | ní | dîɛ̄ | ɲnɪ̃̂ |
| Wobé | ɟríɛ́ | dōṹ | mlã̂ | ɲnə̃̂ | mɛ̄̃õ̀ | ŋʷɔ̄̃ | nmɔ̄ | kpâ | tū | nĩ́ | dī | ɲnẽ̂ |
| Niaboua | ɟîrî | lòkû | máná | ɲéɲé | méɛ̃̀ | ŋʷɔ̄̃ | ɲēmō | kpá | tū | nî | dī | ɲéɲé |
| Bété (Daloa) | ɟi | jûkûlî | mlə̂ | gléí | mɪ́ɔ́ | ŋō | drú | kwâ | sū | ɲû | lí | ŋʉ̂nɪ̂ |
| Bété (Guibéroua) | jiri | júkwɨ́lí | mə́ɲə́ | gʌ̂lʌ̂ | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | nûə̂ | dûrû | kwá | sû | ɲú | dī | ŋʉ́ɲɪ́ |
| Néyo | jɪ́ | ɲúkwlí | mlé | glè | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | né | dòlū | féē | sūú | ɲú | lī | jlɪ́ |
| Godié | jɨdí | ɲūkúlú | mə́ɲə́ | gə̄lè | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | nə̄ | drù | féè | sū | ɲú | ɗɨ̄ | ŋʉ́nʉ́ |
| Koyo | jɪjē | ɲúkiwí | — | glà | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | nə́ | dòlú | féjē | sūú | ɲú | lɨ̄ | ŋɨ́nɨ́ |
| Dida | cí | ɲúkwlí | mné | glā | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | nɪ̄ | dólū | kwíjè | sū | ɲú | lî | ŋlɪ́ |
| Aïzi | zre | lωkɔ | mωvɔ | ɲɪ | mrɔ | mu | ɲre | kra | ke | nrɪ | li | — |
An additional sample basic vocabulary of 21 Kru languages from Marchese (1983):[7]
| Language | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | blood | bone | water | eat | name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aïzi | zre | lωkɔ | mωvɔ | ɲɪ | mrɔ | mu | ɲre | kra | nrɪ | li | |
| Vata | jé | ɲêflú | mênê | glà | meɔ̄ | nɪ̄ | dūlū | fâ | ɲú | lî | |
| Dida | cí | ɲúkwlí | mné | glā | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | nɪ̄ | dòlū | kwíjè | ɲú | lî | ŋlɪ́ |
| Koyo | jíjē | ɲúkwlí | ŋʉ́nʉ́ | glà | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | nə́ | dòlú | féjē | ɲú | lɨ̄ | ŋɨ́nɨ́ |
| Godié | ɲūkúlú | mə́ňə́ | gə̀lè | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | nə̄ | dřù | féè | ɲú | ɗɨ̄ | ŋʉ́nʉ́ | |
| Néyo | jɪ́ | ɲúkwlí | mlé | glè | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | né | dòlū | féē | ɲú | lī | jlɪ́ |
| Bété (Guibéroua) | jiři | júkwɨ́lí | mə́ňə́ | gʌ̂lâ | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | nûə̂ | dûřû | kwá | ɲú | lī | nʉ́nɪ́ |
| Bété (Daloa) | ɟi | jûkûlî | mlə̂ | gléí | mɪ́ɔ́ | ŋō | dřú | kwâ | ɲú | lí | nʉ̀nɪ̂ |
| Niaboua | lòkû | mə́ná | ɲéné | méɛ̃̀ | ŋwɔ̃̄ | ɲēmō | kpá | nî | dī | ɲéné | |
| Wobé | ɟríɛ́ | dōṹ | mlã̂ | ɲnẽ̂ | mɛ̄ɔ̃̀ | ŋwɔ̃̄ | nmɔ̄ | kpâ | nĩ́ | dī | ɲnẽ̂ |
| Guéré | ɟrííē | dōṹ | mlâ | ɲnɪ̃̂ẽ̄ | mẽ̄õ̀ | ŋɔ̃̄ | ɲmɔ̃̄ | kpâ | ní | dìɛ̄ | ɲnɪ̃̂ |
| Konobo | jidɔ | nao | mlã | mɛ | daluo | kla | ɲɛ | di | ɲi | ||
| Oubi | jīrō | nōā | mēã̄ | ŋu | dòùlā | kala | ɲɛ́ | dīdɛ̄ | ɲírṍ | ||
| Bakwe | ɲʉ́ | ɲákúlú | mňṍ | glɛ̀ | mɛ̄ | mʌ́ | tùřú | kɔ̄ō | nē | ɟɨ | nrɪ |
| Tépo | jíê | nω̂â | mɪ̂jã́ | ɲɛ́ | mɛ́ | dâblώ | klá | nîjẽ́ | dî | dώ | |
| Grebo | jê | nóá | méá | mɛ̄ | ŋwúnɔ̄ | ɲénɔ́ | klã́ | nĩ́ | dí | ɲéné | |
| Klao | ɟí | nɔ̄kũ̀ | mnã́ | mɛ̄ | wɔ̃̄ | ɲnɔ̄ | kpã́ | nĩ́ | dī | ɲnɛ̃́ | |
| Bassa | ɟélé | máná | mɔ | wɔ̃̄ | nɔmɔ | kpá | dunu | ɗi | ɲɛnɛ | ||
| Dewoin | gire | málã́ | mīlã̀ | wɔ̃̄ĩ́ | ɲimo | gba | ní | zī | ŋɛ́lɛ́ | ||
| Kuwaa | sĩ̌ | nɔi | ɲũ | mɛ̀wũ | wɔ̃̀ | tòyò | kwa | nímí | ɟì | ɲɛlɛ̃ | |
| Sɛmɛ | ɲa | tasjẽ | mar | ɲen | dɛ | kõ | tõ | kpar | nũ | di | jĩ |
Numerals
Comparison of numerals in individual languages:[8]
| Classification | Language | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kuwaa | Kuwaa (Belleh) | dee | sɔ̃r | tãã̀ | ɲìjɛ̀hɛ | wàyɔ̀ɔ | wɔ̀rfɔlɛ̀ (5 + 1) | kɔrlɔrɔ̃r (5 + 2) | kwatãã̀ (5 + 3) | kɔ̃yĩ̀yɛ̀hɛ (5 + 4) | kowaa |
| Seme | Seme (Siamou) (1) | byẽ́ẽ | nĩ́ĩ̄ | tyáār | yūr | kwɛ̃̄l | kpã̄â | kĩ̄î | kprɛ̄n̂ | kɛ̄l | fú |
| Seme | Seme (Siamou) (2) | dyuɔ̃15 | nĩ15 | tyɛr15 | yur3 | kwɛ̃l3 | k͡pa4a34 | kyi4ĩ34 | k͡prɛ4ɛ̃34 | kal3 | fu1 |
| Eastern, Bakwe | Bakwé | ɗôː | sɔ̂ː | tʌ̄ː | mɾɔ̄ː | ɡ͡bə̀ə̄ | ŋǔːɗō (5 + 1) | ŋǔːsɔ̄ (5 + 2) | ŋǔːtʌ̄ (5 + 3) | ŋǔːmɾɔ̄ (5 + 4) | pʊ̀ |
| Eastern, Bakwe | Wané | do³ / ɗo³ | sɔ² | ta³ | ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ | ŋʷũ⁴² | ŋʷũ⁴² kloː²⁴(5 + 1) | ŋʷũ⁴² sɔ² (5 + 2) | ŋʷũ⁴² ta³ (5 + 3) | ŋʷũ⁴² ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ (5 + 4) | ŋʷũ⁴² bu⁴ or bu⁴ |
| Eastern, Bete | Daloa Bété | ɓlʊ̄ | sɔ̋ | tá | mʊ̄wana | ŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́ | ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ (5 + 1) | ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ (5 + 2) | ɡ͡bʊ̀wata (5 + 3) | ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana (5 + 4) | kʊ́ɡ͡ba |
| Eastern, Bete | Guiberoua Bété | ɓlʊ̄ | sɔ̋ | tá | mʊ̄wana | ŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́ | ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ (5 + 1) | ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ (5 + 2) | ɡ͡bʊ̀wata (5 + 3) | ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana (5 + 4) | kʊ́ɡ͡ba |
| Eastern, Bete | Godié | ɓlōō | sɔ́ɔ́ | tāā | ŋ̀mɔ̀ɔ̀nā | ŋ̀ɡ͡bɨ́ | ŋ̀ɡ͡bóplóo (5 + 1) | ŋ̀ɡ͡bɔ̀ɔ́sɔ́ (5 + 2) | ŋ̀ɡ͡bàátā (5 + 3) | ŋ̀vɔ̀ɔ̀nā | kʊ́ɡ͡bá |
| Eastern, Bete, Eastern | Gagnoa Bété | ɓɵ̯̀ɺō | sɔ̋ | tɑ̄ | mɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̄ | ŋ͡m̩̄.ɡ͡bú | ɡ͡bé.pó̯ɺó (5 + 1) | ɡ͡bɔ́ɔ́.sɔ̋ (5 + 2) | ɡ͡bɔ̋ɔ́.tā (5 + 3) | fɛ̀ɛ̀.nɔ̄ | kō.ɡ͡bɔ́ |
| Eastern, Bete, Eastern | Guébie Bété | ɡ͡bɔlɔ².³ | so⁴ | ta³¹ | mɔna¹.³¹ | mŋɡ͡be² | mŋɡ͡beɡ͡bɔlɔ².².³ (5 + 1) | mŋɡ͡boso³.⁴ (5 + 2) | mŋɡ͡bata³.³¹ (5 + 3) | mŋɡ͡bɔfɛna³.¹.³¹ (5 + 4) | kɔɡ͡ba².³ |
| Eastern, Bete, Eastern | Kouya | ɓlò | sɔ́ | tā | mnʊ̀à | ɡ͡bu | ɡ͡beliɓlò (5 + 1) | ɡ͡besɔ́ (5 + 2) | ɡ͡betā (5 + 3) | ɡ͡bomnʊ̀à (5 + 4) | kuɡ͡bua |
| Eastern, Dida | Yocoboué Dida | bóló | mwɔsɔ́ | mwɔtá | mwɔná | ɛŋɡ͡bɪ́ | ɛŋɡ͡bʊ́frɔ (5 + 1) | ɛmɓɔ́sɔ́ (5 + 2) | ɛmɓáta (5 + 3) | ɛmvwaná | kóɡ͡ba |
| Eastern, Dida | Neyo | ɓɔ̄ló | sɔ́ | tāā | mɔ̀nā | ɡ͡bɪ́ | ɡ͡bɪ́flɔ́ (5 + 1) | ɡ͡básɔ́ (5 + 2) | ɡ͡bátā (5 + 3) | fɛ̄nā (5 + 4) | kʊ́ɡ͡bá |
| Eastern, Kwadia | Kodia | ɡ͡bɤlɤ³² / ɓɤlɤ³² | sɔː² | taː² | mɔna⁴³ | ⁿɡ͡bɤ³ | ⁿɡ͡bɤwlɤ³³³ (5 + 1) | ⁿɡ͡bɔː⁴³sɔ³ (5 + 2) | ⁿɡ͡baː⁴³ta³ (5 + 3) | ⁿɡ͡bɤmɔna³⁴³ (5 + 4) | kʊɡ͡ba³³ |
| Western, Bassa | Bassa | ɖò, dyúáɖò | sɔ̃́ | tã | hĩinyɛ | hm̀m̌ | mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-ɖò (5 + 1) | mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-sɔ̃́ (5 + 2) | mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-tã (5 + 3) | mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-hĩinyɛ (5 + 4) | ɓaɖa-bùè |
| Western, Bassa | Dewoin (Dewoi) | ɡ͡bǒ | sɔ̃́ | ta | hĩinyɛ | hm̀m̌ | meɖe-ɡ͡bǒ (5 + 1) | meɖe-sɔ̃́ (5 + 2) | meɖe-ta (5 + 3) | meɖe-hĩinyɛ (5 + 4) | vù |
| Western, Bassa | Gbasei (Gbii) (1) | dɔ̀ː / ɗɔ̀káⁱ | sɔ̃́ | tã | ɲ̀yɛ̃ | m̀ḿ | m̀mɽědɔ̀ (5 + 1) | m̀mɽěsɔ̃́ (5 + 2) | m̀mɽětã́ (5 + 3) | m̀mɽěɲ̀yɛ̃ (5 + 4) | báɽápʰùwe |
| Western, Bassa | Gbii (Gbi-Dowlu) (2) | dòò, dyúáɖò | sɔ̃́ | tã | hĩ̀nyɛ | hm̀m̀ | mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-ɖò (5 + 1) | mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-sɔ̃́ (5 + 2) | mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-tə̃ (5 + 3) | mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-hĩ̀nyɛ (5 + 4) | ɓaɖabùè |
| Western, Grebo, Glio-Oubi | Glio-Oubi | dō | hwə̃ | tã́ | hə̃ | ɡ͡bə̀ | hṹdò (5 + 1) | hũ̀sɔ́ (5 + 2) | mɛra (5 + 3) | mɛ́ɲɛ̀ (5 + 4) | pue |
| Western, Grebo, Ivorian | Pye (Piè) Krumen | dò | hʋɛ̃́ | tā | hɛ̃̀ | hũ̌ | hũ̀jārō [hũ̀jāɾō] ('five plus one') | hũ̀jāhʋɛ̃́ ('five plus two') | hũ̀jātā ('five plus three') | hũ̀jāhɛ̃̀ ('five plus four') | pù |
| Western, Grebo, Ivorian | Tepo Krumen (1) | dò | hɔ̃́ | tā | hɛ̃̀ | hũ̌ | huõ̀nɔ̀ (5 + 1) | nɪ́pātā (litː 'not/be/three') | nɪ́pāhɔ̃́, yèhɛ̃̀yèhɛ̃̀ (2 x 4) | sēlédò (litː 'remains /there/one') | pù |
| Western, Grebo, Ivorian | Tepo Krumen (2) | dô | ɔ̄ɛ́n | tā | hɛ̀n | ùm | ùmnɔ̄dô (5 + 1) | ùmnɔ̄ɔ̄ɛ́n (5 + 2) | blɛ̄nbìɛ̀n | ùmīyándō | pù |
| Western, Grebo, Liberian | Central Grebo (Barrobo) | dòo | ɔ̌n | taan | hɛ̃ɛn | wùun | wùnɔ̀dǒ (5 + 1) | jetan (4 + 3) ? | jiinhɛ̀n (4 + 4) ? | sǒndò (litː 'remain one' before 10) | fù |
| Western, Grebo, Liberian | Northern Grebo | do | sɔ̃̌ | tã | hɛ̃̀ | m̀m | mmɔ̀do (5 + 1) | nyiɛtã (4 + 3) | nnyɛɛ (4 + 4) | siědo (litː 'remain one' before 10) | pù |
| Western, Klao | Klao | dô | sɔ́n | tan | nyìɛ̀ | mù | mùnéɛ́do (5 + 1) | mùnéɛ́sɔ́n (5 + 2) | mùnéɛtan (5 + 3) | sopádo (10 - 1) | puè |
| Western, Klao | Tajuasohn | doe | sunn nn = ? | tan | hin | hoom | ḿhon doe (5 + 1) | ḿhon sunn (5 + 2) | hinin (4 + 4) | siɛrdoe (litː 'remains one') | punn |
| Western, Wee, Guere-Krahn | Western Krahn | tòò | sɔɔ̌n | ta̓a̓n | nyìɛ̓ | m̀m̌ | mɛ̀o̓ (5 + 1) | mɛ̀sɔɔ̌n (5 + 2) | mɛta̓a̓ǹ (5 + 3) | mɛ̀nyìɛ̓ (5 + 4) | pùèè |
| Western, Wee, Guere-Krahn | Sapo | duě / tòò | sɔn | tan | nyìɛ | m̀m̌ | mɛ̀lǒ (5 + 1) | mɛ̀sɔn (5 + 2) | mɛ̌tan (5 + 3) | mɛ̌nyiɛ (5 + 4) | pùè |
| Western, Wee, Nyabwa | Nyabwa (Nyaboa) | do4 | sɔ̃2 | tã3 | ɲiɛ33 | mu4u1 | mɛ4ɛ1lo4 (5 + 1) | mɛ4ɛ1sɔ̃2 (5 + 2) | mɛ4ɛ1tã3 (5 + 4) | mɛ4ɛ1ɲiɛ33 (5 + 5) | bue44 |
| Western, Wee, Wobe | Northern Wè (Wobe) | too3 / due1 | sɔɔn2 / sɔn2 | taan3 | nyiɛ43 | mm41 | mɛ41o3 (5 + 1) | mɛ41sɔn2 (5 + 2) | mɛ41na3 (5 + 3) | mɛ41nyiɛ3 (5 + 4) | puue3 |
Comparison of numerals in Kru languages from Marchese (1983):[7]
| Classification | Language | one | two | three | four | five | six | seven | eight | nine | ten | twenty | hundred |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Siamou | Seme | jɔ | nḭ | tʸar | yiro | kʷḛ | kpaa | kʸii | prɛ | kal | fu | kar | karkʷḛ |
| Aizi | Aïzi | mṵmɔ̰; yre | iʃɪ | ita | yeɓi | yugbo | fɔ | friʃi | patɛ | fi | bɔ | gu | juyugbo |
| Kuwaa | Kuwaa | dee | sɔ̰ɔ̰ | ta̰à̰ | ɲìyɛ̀ | wààyò | folɛ̀ | kɔ̰lo̰ | kʷata̰à̰ | ko̰yḭ̀yɛ̰̀ | kuwa | kuma sɔ̰᷄ | kɔ̀lɛwúlú |
| Eastern, Bakwe | Bakwé (Soubré) | ||||||||||||
| Eastern, Dida | Dida (Lozoua) | mblò | mɔ̀sɔ́ | mɔ̀tā | mɔ̀ɔ̀nā | ǹgbī | ǹgbʊfɾʊ | ǹgbɔ̀ɔ́sɔ́ | ǹgbàátā | ǹvɔ̀ɔ̀nā | kʊ́gbā | grʊ̄ | gwlīǹgbī |
| Eastern, Dida | Vata | ɓlɔ̀ | sɔ̍ | tā | mɔ̀ɔ̀nā | gbe̍ | gbòɔ́sɔ́ | gbɔ̍fɔ́tā | kógba̍ | golō | |||
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Daloa) | ɓʊ̀lʊ̀ | sɔ̍ | tá | mʊ̀nà | ńgbɨ́ | ńgbʊ́pʊ́lʊ́ | ńgbísɔ̍ | ńgbɔ̍tá | ńgbɨ́mʊ̀nà | kúgbɨ́á | gʊ́lʊ́ | gʊ́lúgbɨ́ |
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Guibéroua) | ɓʊ̀lʊ̀ | sɔ́ | tā | mʊ̀ʌ̀nā | n̄gbɨ́ | n̄gbʊ̍pʊ̍lʊ̍ | n̄gbi̍só | gbʊ̀ʌ́tā | n̄gbɨ̍mʊ̀ʌ̀nā | kʊ̄gbʌ̍ | gʊ̍lʊ̍ | gʷʉ̍lɪ̍n̄gbɨ̍ |
| Eastern, Bete | Godié | ɓʉ̄lʉ̄ | sɔ́ | tā | mʊ̀ʊ̀nʌ̄ | ʌ̰̀gbʉ̄ | ʌ̰̀gbʉ̄pʉ̄lʉ̄ | ʌ̰̀gbɔ̀ɔ̄sɔ́ | ʌ̰̀gbàāɨʌ̄ | pɛɛ̀nʌ̄ | kʊ́gbʌ̍ | gɔ̀lɔ̀ | gʷʌ̀lɪ̀gbʉ̄ |
| Eastern, Bete | Koyo | ɓɔ̄lɔ̄ | sɔ̄ | tā | mɔ̀nā | ŋ̀gbɨ́ | ŋ̀gbópló | ŋ̀gbɔ́sɔ́ | ŋ̀gbátā | ǹvɔ̀nā | kʊ́gbá | gʊ̄lʊ̄ | gʊ̀lɪ̀ɲ́gbɨ́ |
| Eastern, Bete | Néyo | ɓʊ̄lʊ́ | sɔ́ | tāā | mɔ̀nā | gbɪ́ | gbɪ́flɔ́ | gbásɔ́ | gbátā | fɛ̄nā | kʊ́gbá | glʊ́ | gʷlɪ̀gbɪ́ |
| Western, Klao | Klao | dòò | sʊ̰́ | tā̰ā̰ | ɲḭɛ̀ | mùù | ŋmìɛ̀dò | ŋmìɛ̀sɔ̰́ | ŋmìɛ̀tā̰ | sɛpáádō | pūɪ̄ | wlʊ̄ | wlʊ̄mù |
| Western, Bassa | Bassa | dɔ̀ò | sɔ̄ | ta̰ | hḭiɲɛ | hm̀m̀ | hɔ̰́dɔ̀ | ||||||
| Western, Bassa | Déwoin | gbò | sɔ̰ | tà̰ | ɲìɛ̄ | m̀m̄ | mɛ̀legbō | mɛ̀lēslɔ̰́ | mɛ̀lēá̰ | mɛ̀le̍ɲìɛ | èvù | ||
| Western, Grebo | Tépo | do̍ | hɔ̰́ | ta̍ | hɛ̰̀ | m̄ | hwɔ̰̀nɔ̀ | nɪ́pa̍hɔ̰̍ | nɪ́pa̍ta̍ | se̍rédó | pu̍ | a̍ wlʊ̀ | wlɪ̄ m̄ |
| Western, Grebo | Grébo | dō | sɔ̰́ | tá̰ | hɛ̰᷄ | hm̀ú | béhɛ̰᷄ | sīe̍dō | pūnɔ́dō | wōdó | húbū | ||
| Western, Grebo | Oubi | dō | hʷə̰ | tá̰ | hə̰ | gbə̀ | hṵ́dò | hṵ̀sɔ́ | mɛra | mɛ́ɲɛ̀ | pue | gōrō | gòléhm̄ |
| Western, Grebo | Jrwe | do̍ò | hʊ̰́ɛ̰́ | ta̍a̍ | hɛ̰̍ɛ̰̀ | hm̀m̍ | hm̀m̍jɛ̍rʊ̍ | hm̀m̍jɛ̍hʊ̰́ɛ̰́ | hm̀m̍ja̍ta̍ | hm̀m̍ja̍hɛ̰̀ | pu̍ | wlʊ̍ | wɛ̀srɛ̍wɛ̍ |
| Western, Wee | Guéré | dòò | sɔ̰̍ɔ̰̍ | tā̰ā̰ | ɲḭ̀ɛ̰̄ ~ ɲīɛ̄; ɲīɛ̄ ~ ɲḭ̀ɛ̰̄ | m̄ḿ | mɛ̰̄ɛ̰́ō̰ | mɛ̰̄sɔ̰̍ | mɛ̰̄á̰ | mɛ̰᷄ɲɛ̰̍ | bùùè | kwlāsɔ̰̍ | km̄ɛ̰̍dūe̍ |
| Western, Wee | Nyabwa | dʊ̀ | sɔ̰́ | tā̰ | ɲìɛ̄ | mùu̍ | mɛ̄ɛ̍lʊ̀ | mɛ̄ɛ̍sɔ̰̄ | mɛ̄ɛ̍tā̰ | mɛ̍ɲīē | bùè | glòlùé | glàmùu̍ |
| Western, Wee | Wobé | tòò | sɔ̰̍ɔ̰̍ | tā̰ā̰ | ɲìɛ̄ | m̄ḿ | mɛ̄ɛ́ō | mɛ̰̍́sɔ̰̍ | mɛ᷄na̍ | mɛ᷄ɲɛ̍ | pùùè | kwlāsɔ̰̍ | km̄ɛ̍du̍e̍ |
| Western, Wee | Konobo | dʊ | buwɛ | la̰a̰ | ɲiɛ | mm | mɛɛɔ̰ | mɛla | buwɛ | kʷalaso̰ | kɛ̰ɛ̰ |
Body parts (head)
Parts of the head from Marchese (1983):[7]
| Classification | Language | head | hair | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Siamou | Seme | gmel | fleɲi | ɲa | tasyḛ | mar | ɲen | dɛ | ko̰ |
| Aizi | Aïzi | drʊ | lɪfɪ | zre | lʊkɔ | mʊvɔ | ɲɪ | mrɔ | mu |
| Kuwaa | Kuwaa | wúlú | dùi | sḭ̌ | nɔi | ɲṵ | mɛ̀wṵ | wɔ̰̀ | |
| Eastern, Bakwe | Bakwé (Soubré) | wlí | ɲwee | ɲʉ́ | ɲákúlú | ml̰ó̰ | glɛ̀ | mɛ̄ | mʌ́ |
| Eastern, Dida | Dida (Lozoua) | wlú | ɲɪ̄ | cí | ɲūklwí | mné | glā | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | nɪ̄ |
| Eastern, Dida | Vata | ɲe̍ | yé | ɲe̍flú | me̍ne̍ | glà | meɔ̄ | nɪ̄ | |
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Daloa) | wu̍lu̍kpèlè | ɲúkō | ji | yu̍ku̍li̍ | mlə̍ | gléí | mɪ́ɔ́ | ŋō |
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Guibéroua) | wúkpə̀lé | ɲū-kʷə̄ | yiɾi | yúkʷɨ́lí | mə́l̰ə́ | gʌ̍la̍ | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | nu̍ə̍ |
| Eastern, Bete | Godié | wúlú | ɲɪ̄ | yɨdí | ɲūkúlú | mə́l̰ə́ | gə̄lè | mɪɔ̄ | nə̄ |
| Eastern, Bete | Koyo | wúlú | ɲɪ́ī | yɪ́yē | ɲūklwí | ŋʉ́ŋʉ́ | glà | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | nə́ |
| Eastern, Bete | Néyo | ɲɪ́ | yɪ́ | ɲúkʷlí | mlé | glè | mɪ̄ɔ̄ | né | |
| Western, Klao | Klao | dlo᷄ | nūi᷄ | ji | nɔ̄kṵ̀ | mna᷄ | mɛ̄ | wɔ̰̄ | |
| Western, Bassa | Bassa | dú | mí | jélé | máná | mɔ | wɔ̰ | ||
| Western, Bassa | Déwoin | dúlú | gire | málá̰ | mīlà̰ | wɔ̰̄ḭ́ | |||
| Western, Grebo | Tépo | lú | lú púpu̍ | yíe̍ | nʊ̍a̍ | mɪ̍yá̰ | ɲɛ́ | mɛ̍ ~ mé; mé ~ mɛ̍ | wṵ̍t |
| Western, Grebo | Grébo | lu᷄ | ye̍ | nóá | méá | mɛ̄ | ŋwúnɔ̄ | ||
| Western, Grebo | Oubi | mi | yīrō | nōā | mēā̰ | ŋu | |||
| Western, Grebo | Jrwe | lé | lé ɲà̰ɛ̰̍ | jró | nʊ̰̍a̰̍ | mɪ̰̍a̰̍ | ɲɛ̰́ | mɛ̰̍ | wṵ́ |
| Western, Wee | Guéré | drú | míī | jrííē | dōṵ́ | ɓʊ̄ | djūlɛ̀ | mɛ̰̄ò̰ | ŋɔ̰̄ |
| Western, Wee | Nyabwa | dru̍ | nɪ́mə̀ǹè | yíɾi̍ | lòku̍ | mə́ná | ɲéné | méɛ̰̀ | ŋwɔ̰̄ |
| Western, Wee | Wobé | jrú | mḛ́ḛ̄ ~ me; me ~ mḛ́ḛ̄ | jríɛ́ | dōṵ́ | mla̰̍ | ɲnḛ̍ | mɛ̰̍ɔ̰̀ | ŋwɔ̰̄ |
| Western, Wee | Konobo | drɔ | mi | yidɔ | nao | mla̰ | mɛ |
Body parts (lower)
Other body parts from Marchese (1983):[7]
| Classification | Language | neck | arm | breast | intestines | navel | leg | bone | blood | skin |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Siamou | Seme | kʷa̰ | bɔ | nʷḛ | ɲēfū | kpar | to̰ | |||
| Aizi | Aïzi | vu | sʊ | drɪ | mɪ | mʊkʊ | pɪ | kra | ɲre | kʊkɔ |
| Kuwaa | Kuwaa | fɛ̀lɛ | ɲàlì | sḭyà̰ | bɔ̰̀ | kʷa | to̍yò | kṵ᷆ | ||
| Eastern, Bakwe | Bakwé (Soubré) | pli | dáɾó | ɲɪ̄tɪ̄ | mī | mʊ̰̄kʷɛ̄ | ɓɔō | kɔ̄ō | tùɾú | |
| Eastern, Dida | Dida (Lozoua) | brɪ̀ ~ bɾɪ̀; bɾɪ̀ ~ brɪ̀ | sɔ̄ | ɲētī | mɪ̄ | mʊ́kʊ̄díè | ɓō | kwíyè | dòlū | kpʊ̄kpā |
| Eastern, Dida | Vata | sɔ̄ | me̍ | mókɔ̍lɛ̍ | ɓɔ̄gʊ̀ | fa̍ | dūlū | fu̍ | ||
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Daloa) | blʊ̀ | sɔ́ | ɲɪ́tɪ́ | wɪ̍ | dàī | ɓʊ́ | kwa̍ | dɾú | |
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Guibéroua) | bʊ̀lʊ́ | sɔ̍ | ɲɪ̄tɪ̄ | mɪ́ | dàyī | ɓʊ̍ | kʷá | du̍ɾu̍ | ku̍ |
| Eastern, Bete | Godié | bʌlɛ̄ | sɔ̄ | ɲītì | mɪ́ | dèè | ɓʉ̄ | féè | dɾù | kpʊ̄kpʌ |
| Eastern, Bete | Koyo | blɛ̀ | sɔ̄ɔ̄ | ɲītīyē | mɪ́ | mákɔ̄lʊ́gbā | ɓɔ̄ɔ́ | féyē | dòlú | |
| Eastern, Bete | Néyo | blɛ̄ | sɔ̄ɔ́ | mɔ́gbàlɪ̄ | ɲúkōlíé | ɓɔ̄ɔ́ | féē | dòlū | kpʊ̄kpā | |
| Western, Klao | Klao | pnu᷄ | sʊ̰̄ | ɲītī | mɔ̄ɛ᷄ | pùtù | bʊ̄ | kpa᷄ | ɲnɔ̄ | kū |
| Western, Bassa | Bassa | bùnù | nɛɛ̀ | mɛ̄ | zìì | ɓo | kpá | nɔmɔ | ku | |
| Western, Bassa | Déwoin | būnū | nḛ | ɓō | gba | ɲimo | ||||
| Western, Grebo | Tépo | plʊ̀ | da̍bʊ́ | nɛ̍yɛ̍ ~ ɲɛ̍yɛ̍; ɲɛ̍yɛ̍ ~ nɛ̍yɛ̍ | ŋmí | nɛ́ɛ́ ~ nɛ́; nɛ́ ~ nɛ́ɛ́ | bʊ̍ | klá | da̍blʊ́ | kɔ̀ ~ kɔ̍; kɔ̍ ~ kɔ̀ |
| Western, Grebo | Grébo | plo᷄ | só̰ | ɲínē | kúdíde̍ | no̍na᷄ | bó | kla᷄ | ɲénɔ́ | fe᷄ |
| Western, Grebo | Oubi | pòlò | ho̰ | muə̄gli | nə̰ | bo | kala | dòùlā | ||
| Western, Grebo | Jrwe | plʊ̀ | hʊ̰̍ | ɲɛ̰̍sɛ̍ | nɛ̰́ɛ̰̍ | bʊ̍ | klá | klʊ́ʊ̍ | kɔ̀ | |
| Western, Wee | Guéré | blṵ̄ | sō̰ | ɲḛ̄ɛ̰̀ | mḛ̍ | ɓóà | bʊ̍ | kpa̍ | ɲmɔ̰̄ | kū |
| Western, Wee | Nyabwa | būlū | sʊ̄ | ɲētìɛ̀ | mé | zànɛ̍ɛ̍ | ɓʊ̄ | kpá | ɲēmō | kù |
| Western, Wee | Wobé | plṵ̀ | sō̰ | ɲḛ̄ɛ̰̀ | mḛ̍ | sɛ̰̀ ɲɛ̀ | bʊ̄ | kpa̍ | nmɔ̄ | kū |
| Western, Wee | Konobo | sʊ | ɲiniɛ | gbolo | bo | kla | daluo | ku |
Other nouns
Miscellaneous nouns from Marchese (1983):[7]
| Classification | Language | snake | egg | horn | tail | rope | father | mother | woman | child | name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Siamou | Seme | jàl | kʸḛ | bī | ɲan | tɔ | yɔ | mel | ɓisyā | y̰i | |
| Aizi | Aïzi | srɪ | ji | gbeli | gɛtɛ | zuzo | keke | lapɛ | jɪ | ||
| Kuwaa | Kuwaa | gbɛ̰̀ɛ̰̀ | kɛ̀ɛ̀mɛ̀ | kṵ̌bé | ɲídewúlé | dòyò | nu | ɲinɔ̀ | jí | ɲɛlɛ̰ | |
| Eastern, Bakwe | Bakwé (Soubré) | tɾɔ̄ | sàpɨ́gē | tō | yuo | ŋʷɔ́l̰ɔ́ | yəyie | ɲrɪ | |||
| Eastern, Dida | Dida (Lozoua) | trɛ̄ | jīè | gwɪ́ | gūò | ɓlū | to̍ | nɔ́ | ŋwnɔ́ | cíle̍ | ŋlɪ́ |
| Eastern, Dida | Vata | tlɛ̄ | gì ~ jì | vɔ́ɛ̍ | co̍ | nɔ́ | ŋɔnɔ́ | lo̍ | |||
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Daloa) | tɪ́mɛ́ | gʉyī | gɔ̍ | li̍kpə́ | tɓà | dà | ŋɔ́nɔ̍ | gu̍ | ŋʉ̍nɪ̍ | |
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Guibéroua) | ti̍mɛ̍ | gʉ̄ | gʊ́ | gʷə̀yi̍ | díkpə̍ | dɪ̄bà | dà | ŋɔ́ɾɔ́ | yú | ŋʉ́l̰ɪ́ |
| Eastern, Bete | Godié | trɛ̄ | gɪ̀ | vɪ̄ | gə̀ | ɓɨlɨ́kpə̄ | tʉ́ | dà | ŋʷɔ́l̰ɔ́ | yɪ́ | ŋʉ́nʉ́ |
| Eastern, Bete | Koyo | miɛ̄bòlú | gɪ̀yē | gó | ɓlíyē | bá | nɔ́ | ŋɔ́nɔ́ | yó | ŋɨ́nɨ́ | |
| Eastern, Bete | Néyo | tlɛ̄ | gè | vʊ́ | ɓlú | tʊ́ | nɛ́ | ŋʷló̰ | yʊ́ | ylɪ́ | |
| Western, Klao | Klao | slɛ̄ | ɲɛ᷆ | ŋmo̰᷆ | wʊ̰᷆ | dlu᷄ ~ dbu᷄ | mi᷄ | dé | ɲnɔ᷄ | jēgbé | ɲnɛ᷄ |
| Western, Bassa | Bassa | sɛ | gɛ̰ | gmɛ̀ | vɔ̰ | lúlú | ɓà | le | màa | jú | ɲɛnɛ |
| Western, Bassa | Déwoin | sɛ̄wɛ̄ | ge | ɓùlū | ɓa̍ | ma᷅ | ɲiro; ŋɔ́nɔ́ | wú | ɲɛ́lɛ́ | ||
| Western, Grebo | Tépo | hre̍ | ŋɔ̀ | ŋmʊ̄ | bà | pátà | bu̍ | díí ~ dí; dí ~ díí | ɲnɔ̍gbá | yú | dʊ́ |
| Western, Grebo | Grébo | sídé | ŋēyē | lúdu̍ | bu̍o̍ | de᷄ | ɲénɛ́ | hḛ̍a̰̍ | ɲéné | ||
| Western, Grebo | Oubi | here | hawɛŋɨ̰nɛ | ŋʷɛ̰ | ba | wūlū | bui | di | ɲīrō̰ | yu | ɲíró̰ |
| Western, Grebo | Jrwe | hre̍ | ɲɔ̰́lò | do̍e̍ | bà | lúrū | bó | dé | nɔ̰̍wá | yú | ɲl̰ɔ̰́ |
| Western, Wee | Guéré | sɛ̰̄ | sō̰a̰̍ gɛ̄ | ŋm̄ɔ̰̍ | gō̰ | dbú | bā | do̍ū | jú zá̰à̰ | ɓāò | ɲnɪ̰̍ |
| Western, Wee | Nyabwa | sɛ̰̄ | sò̰o̰̍ gḛ̄ɛ̰̄ | gbó̰ | gō̰ | ɓlu̍kū | tèta | lótō | ɲə́nɔ́ | yu̍ | ɲéné |
| Western, Wee | Wobé | sɛ̰̄ | so̰᷄kɛ̰̀ɛ̰̀ | ŋmɛ̀ | ko̰᷅ | dbū ~ dbú; dbú ~ dbū | bó | dē | ɲnɔ̍ kpāo̍ | jú sǎ̰ā̰ | ɲnḛ̍ |
| Western, Wee | Konobo | sɛrɛ | ɲie | gbo | gʷo | dru | ba | de | ɲɪnɪ | jowe | ɲi |
Nature
Nature-related words from Marchese (1983):[7]
| Classification | Language | day | sun | moon | water | fire | fog | sea | dust | salt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Siamou | Seme | yefʸɛ | ye | fʷǒ | nṵ | niɛ | ||||
| Aizi | Aïzi | zi | ze | cu | nrɪ | lede | jru | magri | ɓʊɓʊ | trʊ |
| Kuwaa | Kuwaa | kùlù | kàlà | kewu | nímí | ka̰᷆ | koo | jiwo | lowo | kìyɔ̀ |
| Eastern, Bakwe | Bakwé (Soubré) | srè | jró | sɨple | nē | kāpū | bru | tánīē | mɔ̰l̰ɔ̰ | |
| Eastern, Dida | Dida (Lozoua) | cɾɪ̄ | ylʊ́ | cʊ́ | ɲú | kòsū | jlū | jḭ̄yē | pipi | glī |
| Eastern, Dida | Vata | cʊ̍ | ɲú | kōsū | jɛ̰́vie̍ | ŋúŋu̍ | ||||
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Daloa) | yɪ̍ɾɪ̍ | yʊ̍ɾʊ̍zàrʊ́ | na̍pɛ́ | ɲu̍ | kòsū | gbi̍ɾu̍ | gɨ-ɲɛ̄ | ɓu̍kú | gʉ́ɓɨ́ |
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Guibéroua) | yɪ́ɾɪ́ | yʊ́ɾʊ́ | cʊ́ | ɲú | kòsū | ju̍ɾu̍ | jīē | ɓūù-kʷə̍ | gɨ̍ɓɨ̍ |
| Eastern, Bete | Godié | yʊ̀ɾʊ̀ | yʊɾʊ́ | cʊ̄ | ɲú | kòsū | jùɾù | jīyē | ɓàɓùū | gɨ̀ɗɨ̀ |
| Eastern, Bete | Koyo | yʊ́rʊ́ | yʊ́rʊ́ | cʊ́ʊ̄ | ɲú | kòsū | jùrù | jīyē | ɓūɓú | gʉ̀lʉ̀ |
| Eastern, Bete | Néyo | zlì | ylʊ́ | cʊ́ | ɲú | kōsū | jlù | gɨ̄ē | mʊ̍mʷɪ̄ɪ́ | gūu̍ |
| Western, Klao | Klao | ylʊ᷄ | cʊ̄ | ni᷄ | nɛ | jlu᷄ | jlō | pūpūí | to̰᷄ | |
| Western, Bassa | Bassa | wé | jóló | dɛ̀nɛ̀ | dunu | pɛ | dunu | jóó | pūpū | tó̰ |
| Western, Bassa | Déwoin | wé | gú | sò | ní | nàì | tó̰ | |||
| Western, Grebo | Tépo | ɲnɔ̀wo̍ | yrʊ́ | hɔ̀pɔ̍ | ni̍yḛ́ | na̍ | jrù | yrú | púpu̍ | tá |
| Western, Grebo | Grébo | ŋwɛ́ | hɔ̀bō | ni᷄ | ná | jūdú | yúdá | púíbi̍ | ta᷄ | |
| Western, Grebo | Oubi | ɲìrò̰ | jīrō | hɔ̰liɛ | ɲɛ́ | nàní | jùrù | tápɛ̀ | múlɔ̰̀ | |
| Western, Grebo | Jrwe | ɲl̰ɔ̰̀wò | jrʊ́ | hóóò | nḭ́ḛ́ | na̰̍ | jrù | ti̍e̍ | púwò | tá |
| Western, Wee | Guéré | wɪ̍ | jru̍ | cʊ̍ | ní | nɛ̰̄ | wɛ̍ì | to̰̍nī | djɛ̄ɛ̀ | tɔ̰̍ |
| Western, Wee | Nyabwa | wɪ́ | yóró | cʊ́ | ni̍ | nɛ̄ | jurū | gɨ̄ɨ̄ | pīpèlè | tɔ̰̄ |
| Western, Wee | Wobé | wɪ̍ | jru̍ | cʊ̍ | nḭ́ | nɛ̰̄ | cnṵ̄ | to̰̍nī | pu̍ē | tɔ̰̍ |
| Western, Wee | Konobo | wɔ̰ | jɨdo | co | ɲɛ | nani | jlu | yoo | mulo | ta |
Verbs (1)
Some basic verbs from Marchese (1983):[7]
| Classification | Language | eat | drink | bite | vomit | die | kill | walk | come |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Siamou | Seme | di | namu | nuo̰ | ko(klo) | ko(kɔrɔ) | koel | bɛ(bla) | |
| Aizi | Aïzi | li | ma | cɛ | gʷra | kɔ | yra | na | yi |
| Kuwaa | Kuwaa | jì | gbɛ | ɲìmì | kɔ̀jɛ̀ | fa̰la̰ | java | namu | yì |
| Eastern, Bakwe | Bakwé (Soubré) | jɨ | ml̰áà | ml̰u | wɔsɔ | jʌ | ɓlá | ɲɛ́ | jī |
| Eastern, Dida | Dida (Lozoua) | ti̍ | mlá | mni̍ | gɔ̍zɛ̄ | kú | ɓlá | námʊ̍ | ci̍ |
| Eastern, Dida | Vata | li̍ | nia̍ | nlɪ̍ | ɓeɔ̀ | fú | nánɪ́ | yi̍ | |
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Daloa) | lī | nɪ̍ma̍ | nɨ́mɨ́ | mə́tī | tɾɪ | lɪ̍ɓa̍ | námʉ́ | jí |
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Guibéroua) | dī | nɪ́mʌ́ | nīmɨ̄ | mə́tī | kú | lɪ́bʌ́ | nɛ̍mʉ̍ | yī |
| Eastern, Bete | Godié | ɗɨ̄ | mʌ́nʌ́ | mɨ̄l̰ɨ̄ | gʷʌ̄sɛ̀ | kú | ɓʌ́lʌ́ | nʌ́ʌ̄ | yī |
| Eastern, Bete | Koyo | lɨ̄ | ḿlá | miɨ̄ | gɔ̄sɛ̀ | kú | ɓlá | ná̰à̰ | yī |
| Eastern, Bete | Néyo | lī | mlá | miī | gɔ̄zɪ̀ɔ̀ | kú | ɓla̍ | nāà | yī |
| Western, Klao | Klao | dī | na᷄ | nmī | wlà | mɛ᷄ | dla᷄ ~ dba᷄ | na᷆ | jí |
| Western, Bassa | Bassa | ɗi | ná | numu | hwala | mɛ́ | láɓá | na̍ | ji |
| Western, Bassa | Déwoin | zī | ná | ku | ta̰; láwá | yi | |||
| Western, Grebo | Tépo | di̍ | ná | ne̍ | wlà | kʊ́ | lá ~ la̍; la̍ ~ lá | nà | di̍ré |
| Western, Grebo | Grébo | dí | na᷄ | mlí | wōdá | kō(ɛ́) | dí | ||
| Western, Grebo | Oubi | dīdɛ̄ | ná | wɔ̀là | kʊ | wɔlɔ | na | dó | |
| Western, Grebo | Jrwe | di̍dɛ̍ | ná̰ | nɛ̰́ɛ̰̍ | wlà | la̍ | na̰̍ | di̍rè | |
| Western, Wee | Guéré | djréè | na̍ | nmū | gwlà | ɗrē | dbā | na̰᷆ | jī |
| Western, Wee | Nyabwa | dī | ná | nūmū | gəlāgəlá | lə́ɓá | nà | yī | |
| Western, Wee | Wobé | dī | na̍ | nmū | kẁlā | mɛ̍ | dba̍ | na᷆ | jī |
| Western, Wee | Konobo | di | na | wlaawɔ | gula | mɛ | dra | na | jlo |
Verbs (2)
Other basic verbs from Marchese (1983):[7]
| Classification | Language | give | dig | sleep | push | shoot | sing |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Siamou | Seme | kḛ; kla̰ | dɛ; la | tutur | gʸai ɲḛ | ||
| Aizi | Aïzi | ɲɛ | ɓru | mɔ namʊ | tu | gbi | |
| Kuwaa | Kuwaa | nì | bíí | wa̰ni | to᷆ | kòì | fa᷆doyo |
| Eastern, Bakwe | Bakwé (Soubré) | ɲe | múmɔ̀ | kʷɛ́ɛ̀ | |||
| Eastern, Dida | Dida (Lozoua) | ɲɛ́ | ɓlí | ŋɔ̄mʊ̄ | sú | jri̍ ~ jɾi̍ | ɓlɪ̄ |
| Eastern, Dida | Vata | ɓlí | ɲɔ́nɔ̍ | súsue̍ | ɓlɪ̍ | ||
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Daloa) | ɲɛ̍ | wlù | ŋɔ́mʉ́ | súnʊ̄ | tɪ̍tɾɪ́ | blɪ̄ |
| Eastern, Bete | Bété (Guibéroua) | ɲɛ́ | ɓúlú | ŋʌ̍mʉ̍ | súnɪ̄ | jiɾi ~ jīɾi | ɓʉ̄lɪ̄ |
| Eastern, Bete | Godié | ɲɛ́ | ɓɨ́dɨ́ | ŋʷɔ́ɔ̄ | sú | jri | ɓʉ̄lɪ̄ |
| Eastern, Bete | Koyo | ɲɛ́ | ɓlʉ́lʉ́ | ŋɔ́ɔ̀ | zɛ́ | jrɨ̄ | ɓlɪ̄ |
| Eastern, Bete | Néyo | ɲɛ́ | wlúū | ŋɔ̄ | sú | jri ~ jrī | ɓlɪ̄ |
| Western, Klao | Klao | ɲî | blu᷄ | tṵ᷄ | jlì | blē | |
| Western, Bassa | Bassa | ɲí | ɓúlú | nɔ́ | cṵ́ | ɓele | |
| Western, Bassa | Déwoin | gḭ́ | ɓúlú | nɔ́ | sṵ́ | gbī | ɓēlē |
| Western, Grebo | Tépo | ɲè | gblú | ŋmò | túe̍ | bre̍ | |
| Western, Grebo | Grébo | hḭ᷄ | búdú | móɔ́ | tṵ̄ | blé | |
| Western, Grebo | Oubi | ɲé | búlúiro | ŋmo̰ | tūɛ̄ | gìrɛ̀lɔ́ | bəlɛ |
| Western, Grebo | Jrwe | ɲɛ̰̀ | blú | ŋmḛ̍ | tú | bre̍wlà | |
| Western, Wee | Guéré | jé | ɓlú | mo̰̍ | tṵ́ | ble̍ | |
| Western, Wee | Nyabwa | ɲe̍m | bulu̍ | mó̰ | tūù | jīrī | ɓlē |
| Western, Wee | Wobé | ɲḛ̍ | blú | mo̰̍ | pō | crḭḭa̍ ~ crīīa̍ | ble̍ |
| Western, Wee | Konobo | ye | blo | mo | tui | jidiɛ | ble |
Reconstruction
| Proto-Kru | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Kru languages |
According to Marchese Zogbo (2012), Proto-Kru had:[9]
- phonemic nasalized vowels
- four level tones
- *CVCV-(C)V and probably *CVV syllable structure. *CCV syllables, and possibly also *CVV syllables, are derived from *CVCV roots.
- SVO word order, but with much OV typology
- suffixing morphology
- perfective and imperfective aspects
Proto-Kru consonants (Marchese Zogbo 2012):
| p | t | k | kp |
| b | d | g | gb |
| ɓ | |||
| m | n | ŋ (?) | |
| s | |||
| l | w |
Derived consonants:
- /ɟ/ is likely derived via palatalization (*g > ɟ), e.g. *gie > ɟie.
- *c, *ɲ, *kʷ, *gʷ, *ŋʷ are derived from alveolar or velar consonants preceding high back or high front vowels.
- /ɗ/ is likely derived from *l.
Proto-Kru vowels (Marchese Zogbo 2012):
| ɪ | ʊ |
| e | o |
| ɛ | ɔ |
| a |
There is a clear bipartite division between Western and Eastern Kru marked by phonological and lexical distinctions. Some isoglosses between Western Kru and Eastern Kru:
| Gloss | Proto-Western Kru | Proto-Eastern Kru |
|---|---|---|
| tree | *tu | *su |
| dog | *gbe | *gwɪ |
| fire | *nɛ | *kosu |
| tooth | *ɲnɪ | *gle |
References
- ↑ Breitbonde, L. B. (1991). "City, Countryside, and Kru Ethnicity". Africa. 61 (2): 186–201. doi:10.2307/1160614. JSTOR 1160614. S2CID 145592217.
- ↑ Dalby, Andrew (1998). Dictionary of Languages. New York: Columbia UP.
- 1 2 3 Bahl, Taru; Syed, M. H., eds. (2003). Encyclopaedia of Muslim World. New Delhi: Ammol Publications. pp. 24–25. ISBN 9788126114191.
- ↑ McEvoy, Frederick (1997). "Understanding Ethnic Realities among the Grebo and Kru People of West Africa". Africa. 47 (1): 62–80. doi:10.2307/1159195. JSTOR 1159195. S2CID 145689821.
- ↑ Fisiak, Jacek (1984). Historical Syntax. New York: Mouton.
- 1 2 Marchese, Lynell. 1989. Kru. In Bendor-Samuel, John (ed.), The Niger-Congo Languages: A Classification and Description of Africa's Largest Language Family, 119-139. Lanham MD, New York & London: Lanham: University Press of America.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Marchese, Lynell. 1983. Atlas linguistique Kru: nouvelle edition. Abidjan: Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique (ACCT).
- ↑ Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.
- ↑ Marchese Zogbo, Lynell. 2012. Kru revisited, Kru revealed Archived 2020-06-17 at the Wayback Machine. Paper presented at the International Congress "Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction," Paris, 18‒21 September. (Abstract Archived 2020-06-17 at the Wayback Machine)
- Westerman, Diedrich Hermann (1952) Languages of West Africa (Part II). London/New York/Toronto: Oxford University Press.
External links
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