| Kainji | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Kainji Lake, Nigeria |
| Linguistic classification | Niger–Congo? |
| Subdivisions |
|
| Glottolog | kain1275 |
 The Kainji languages shown within the Middle Belt of central Nigeria | |
The Kainji languages are a group of about 60 related languages spoken in west-central Nigeria. They form part of the Central Nigerian (Platoid) branch of Benue–Congo.
Demographics
Four of the most widely spoken Kainji languages are Tsuvadi (150,000), Cishingini and Tsishingini (100,000 each)—all from the Kambari branch; and Clela (C'lela, Lela) (100,000), of the Northwest Kainji branch. In total, there were about one million speakers of Kainji languages (1990s estimate) in Nigeria.
History
Proto-Kainji is estimated by Blench (2012) to be 3,000 to 4,000 years old. Its broken distribution today is likely due to the historical northward expansion of the Nupoid languages.[1]
Morphology
Proto-Kainji nominal prefixes:[2]
- *mV- for liquids and other mass nouns
- *u- for person, *ba- for people
- *kV- for diminutive and perhaps also augmentative; also found in some Plateau languages
Classification
The most divergent of the Kainji languages are Reshe, Laru and Lopa, which may form a branch together. Subclassification of the other branches is not yet clear. A bipartite division between East Kainji and West Kainji is no longer maintained, with West Kainji now being paraphyletic.
Blench (2018)
Most recent Kainji classification by Blench (2018:64):[2]
- Lake
- Central
Blench (2012)
Blench's (2012) classification is:[1]
- Lakes: Reshe; Laru (Shen), Lopa (Rerang)
- Kainji proper (Central)
- Northwest Kainji (Lela)
- (branch)
McGill (2012)
A revised classification of the Kainji languages by McGill (2012) splits Kainji into the Lake and Central branches.[3]
- Kainji
Gerhardt (1983)
Classification of Plateau 1a (now West Kainji) and Plateau 1b (now East Kainji) languages by Gerhardt (1983),[4] based on Maddieson (1972):[5]
- Plateau 1a
- Laru-Lopa
- Reshe
- Kambari cluster
- Ngwoi, Kamuku cluster, Bassa-Kontagora, Ashaganna
- Bassa-Kaduna, Bassa-Kuta, Gurmana, Pongo, Baushi, Ura, Bassa-Kwomu
- Dakarkari, Duka, Pəku-Kəri-Wipsi cluster, Lyase
- Plateau 1b
- Kuda-Chamo, Butu-Ningi, Gyema, Taura, Lemoro-Sanga, Janji, Shani, Buji-Ibunu-Jere-Gus, Anaguta
- Kuzamaini, Kurama, Rumaya, Ruruma, Binawa, Kono, Surubu
- Kaivi, Kiballo, Kitimi, Kinuku, Dungi, Gure-Kahugu
- Amo
Names and locations
Below is a comprehensive list of Kainji language names, populations, and locations from Blench (2019).[6]
Note: West Kainji is geographical rather than genealogical.
| Group | Primary locations |
|---|---|
| East Kainji | Kauru LGA, Kaduna State and Bassa LGA, Plateau State |
| West Kainji | Rafi LGA, Niger State and Zuru and Yauri LGAs, Kebbi State (Kainji Lake area) |
East Kainji
West Kainji
| Language | Branch | Cluster | Dialects | Alternate spellings | Own name for language | Endonym(s) | Other names (location-based) | Other names for language | Exonym(s) | Speakers | Location(s) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hɨpɨna | Baushi | Supana | Tihɨpɨna | Vihɨpɨna pl. Ahɨpɨna | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Supana town | |||||||
| Mɨn | Baushi | Tiimɨn | Vʷinyi Mɨn pl. Ayi Mɨn | Bauchi Guda, Kukoki (name of largest town) | Niger State, Rafi LGA, 27 villages in 8 chiefships | |||||||
| Ndәkә | Baushi | Shena may be a dialect | Madaka | Tundәkә | Vundәkә pl. Andәka | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Madaka town | ||||||
| Rubu | Baushi | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Rubu town | ||||||||||
| Wãyã | Baushi | Wayam | Tũwãyã | Vũwãyã pl. Ãwãyã | Niger State, Rafi and Shiroro LGAs, Wayam town | |||||||
| Samburu | Baushi | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Samburu town | no data | |||||||||
| Gurmana | Eastern | estimated more than 3,000 (1989) | Niger State, Shiroro LGA. Gurmana town and nearby hamlets | |||||||||
| Cipu | Kambari | Kumbashi, Tikula, Ticihun, Tirisino, Tidipo, Tizoriyo, Tiddodimo | Cicipu | Tocipu | Acipa, Achipa, Achipawa, Atsipawa | Tәcәp Tochipo Tә–Sәgәmuk | Bucepo sg., Ucɛpo pl. Bu–Sәgәmuk sg. | 3,600 (1949 G&C) | Kebbi State, Sakaba LGA; Niger State, Mariga and Rafi LGA, Kaduna State Birnin Gwari LGA | |||
| Damakawa (extinct) | Kambari | Damakawa | Tidama’un (Cicipu name) | 500-1000 ethnic population, but language now has only a few rememberers | Kebbi State, Sakaba LGA, villages of Inguwar Kilo and Marandu | The dubious reliability of some of the data and the possibility of Cipu loans makes the classification of Damakawa slightly uncertain. | ||||||
| Kambari I cluster | Kambari | Kambari I | Kamberi | with Kambari II: 67,000 (1952 W&B); 100,000 (1973 SIL) | Niger State, Magama and Mariga LGAs; Kebbi State, Zuru and Yauri LGAs; Niger State, Borgu LGA | |||||||
| Agaɗi | Kambari | Kambari I | Tsɨgaɗi | Kakihum | Niger State, Mariga LGA | |||||||
| Avaɗi | Kambari | Kambari I | Abadi, Evadi | Tsɨvaɗi | Ibeto | Niger State, Magama LGA | ||||||
| Baangi | Kambari | Kambari I | Baangi | ciBaangi | sg. vuBaangi, pl. aBaangi | Bangawa (Hausa) | estimate more than 5,000 (1989) | Niger State, Kontagora LGA, Ukata town and nearby villages; probably also into adjacent Kebbi State, Yauri LGA | ||||
| Tsishingini | Kambari | Kambari I | Cishingini, Tsishingini | Mashingini pl. Ashingini | Salka | Niger State, Magama LGA | ||||||
| Yumu | Kambari | Kambari I | Yumu, Osisi | Niger State, Borgu LGA, at Yumu and Osisi | ||||||||
| Kambari II cluster | Kambari | Kambari II | Kamberi | with Kambari I: 67,000 (1952 W&B); 100,000 (1973 SIL) | Niger State, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Zuru and Yauri LGAs; Kwara State, Borgu LGA | |||||||
| Agaushi | Kambari | Kambari II | Cishingini | Auna | Niger State, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA | |||||||
| Akimba | Kambari | Kambari II | Tsɨkimba | Akimba | Auna, Wara | Niger State, Rijau, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA | ||||||
| Cishingini, Nwanci | Kambari | Kambari II | Cishingini, Ngwәci | Cishingini, Tsɨwәnci | Mawunci sg. Ŋwәnci pl. | Agwara | Agara’iwa | Niger State, Borgu, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA | ||||
| Zubazuba | Kamuku | Gamazuba | Igwama, Mariga LGA, Niger State | |||||||||
| Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki cluster | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Kamuku | Niger State, Chanchagga, Rafi and Mariga LGAs | ||||||||
| Cinda | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Oxford Primary Maths 1 (1988?) | Jinda, Majinda | Tucindә | sg. Bucindә pl. Cindә | Niger State, Mariga, Rafi, Kusheriki LGAs, Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA | |||||
| Regi | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Turegi | sg. Buregi pl. Regi | Niger State, Mariga, Rafi, Kusheriki LGAs, Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA | |||||||
| Kuki | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Azana, Akubyar | Tiyar [town name not a language] | TuKuki | BuKuki pl. Kuki | Kamuku | Niger State, Mariga, Rafi, Kusheriki LGAs, Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA | ||||
| Kwacika (extinct) | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Tukwacika | sg. Bukwacika pl. Kwacika | There was only one elderly speaker in the 1980s; hence, it is almost certainly extinct | Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA | ||||||
| Kwagere | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Niger State, Chanchagga, Rafi and Mariga LGAs | |||||||||
| Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi cluster | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi | ||||||||||
| Basa-Gurara | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi | Basa-Kwali | Federal Capital Territory, Yaba and Kwali LGAs, along the Gurara river | ||||||||
| Basa-Benue | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi | Basa | RuBasa | TuBasa | Abacha, Abatsa | Basa-Komo, Basa-Kwomu (not recommended) | 30,000 (1944-50 HDG); 100,000 (1973 SIL) | Kogi State, Bassa, and Ankpa LGAs, Nasarawa State, Nasarawa LGA | |||
| Basa-Makurdi | Kamuku–Basa | Benue State, Makurdi LGA, several villages on the north bank of the Benue, northwest of Makurdi | no data | |||||||||
| Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora cluster (extinct?) | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora (extinct?) | ||||||||||
| Basa-Gumna (extinct) | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora (extinct?) | Gwadara-Basa, Basa Kuta, Basa-Kaduna | Only 2 known semi-speakers in 1987. The population known as Basawa speaks only Hausa. Probably now extinct | Niger State, Chanchaga LGA | |||||||
| Basa-Kontagora (extinct) | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora (extinct?) | Fewer than 10 speakers in 1987. Probably now extinct | Niger State, Mariga LGA, N.E. of Kontagora | ||||||||
| Basa-Gurmana | Kamuku–Basa | Kɔrɔmba | more than 2,000 speakers (1987) | Niger State, border of Rafi and Chanchaga LGAs, Kafin Gurmana | ||||||||
| Rogo | Kamuku–Basa | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | TɔRɔgɔ | BɔRɔgɔ sg. Rɔgɔ pl. | Ucanja Kamuku | Niger State, Rafi and Kusheriki LGAs, around Ucanja town, 30 km northwest of Kagara. | ||||||
| Fungwa | Kamuku–Basa | Tufungwa | Afungwa | Ura, Ula | 900 (1949 H.D. Gunn) | Niger State, Rafi LGA, at Gulbe, Gabi Tuƙurbe, Urenciki, Ringa and Utana | ||||||
| Hùngwә̀ryə̀ | Kamuku–Basa | Dialects: Bitbit (Kwabitu), Lәklәk (Karaku), Jinjin (Makangara), Wũswũs (Karaiya), Tәmbәrjә (Tambere) | Cәhungwә̀ryə̀, Tʷə̀hungwә̀ryə̀ [ʨə̀hungwә̀ryə̀] | Bùhùngwə̀ryə̀ sg., ə̀hùngwə̀ryə̀ pl. | Ngwoi, Ngwe, Ungwe, Ingwe, Nkwoi, Ngwai, Ungwai, Hungworo | 1000 (1949 HDG), 5000 (2007 est.) | Niger State, Rafi, Kusheriki LGA, around Kagara and Maikujeri towns | |||||
| Shama–Sambuga cluster | Kamuku–Basa | Shama–Sambuga | Tushama | sg. Bushama, pl. Ushama | Kamuku | Niger State, Rafi LGA | ||||||
| Shama | Kamuku–Basa | Shama–Sambuga | Tushama | Bushama sg. Ushama pl. | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Ushama [=Kawo] town. 15 km northwest of Kagara | |||||||
| Sambuga (extinct) | Kamuku–Basa | Shama–Sambuga | Possibly extinct (2008) | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Sambuga town. 10 km northwest of Kagara | ||||||||
| Shen | Lake | Laro, Laru | Laruwa | 1,000 (1992 est.) | Niger State, Borgu LGA | |||||||
| Rop | Lake | Lupa, Lopa | Kirikjir | Djiri | Lopawa | 960 (NAT 1950); 5,000 (1992 est.) | Niger State, Borgu LGA, Kebbi State, Yauri LGA. At least 6 villages on the east shore of Kainji Lake plus two others on the western shore. | |||||
| Tsupamini | Lake | Lopa | Lopanci | Lopawa | 960 (NAT 1950); 5,000 (1992 est.). Global estimate with Rop | Niger State, Borgu LGA, Kebbi State, Yauri LGA. At least 6 villages on the east shore of Kainji Lake plus two others on the west shore. | ||||||
| Reshe | Lake | Birәmi (South), Bәmәmәdu (Northwest), Bәpalame (Northeast). Harris (1930:321) claims a ‘secret dialect’ called Tsudalupe which = Bәmәmәdu. | Tsure Ja | Tsureshe | Bareshe | Gunganci | Gungawa, Yaurawa | 15,000 (1931 G&C); 30,000 (1973 SIL) | Kebbi State, Yauri LGA; Niger State, Borgu LGA | |||
| Hun–Saare | Northern | Western (sSaare) (around Dukku), Eastern (tHun) (around Rijau), Tungan Bunu | Ethun | tHun, sSaare | Hunnɛ | Duka | Dukanci | 19,700 (1949 Gunn and Conant); 30,000 (1980 UBS) | Kebbi State, Sakaba LGA; Niger State, Rijau LGA | |||
| Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun cluster | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | The name ut-Main has been adopted by various members of this cluster as a cover term for these languages, but whether it will be widely adopted remains to be seen. | Fakanci, Fakkanci | 12,300 (1949 G&C) | Kebbi State, Zuru and Wasagu LGAs, west of Dabai | ||||||
| Kag | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | tKag | sg. woo Kag, pl. Kagne | Faka, Fakai (town name), Fakanci, Fakkanci | Pәku–Nu (cLela name) | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, Mahuta and Fakai areas | |||||
| Fer | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | tFer | sg. wasFer, pl. asFer | Kukum Wipsi–Ni (cLela name) | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, around Kukum town | ||||||
| Jiәr | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | tJiәr | sg. wauJiәr, pl. aJiәr | Gelanci Serim | Gelawa, Geeri–ni | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, around Bajidda; Rijau LGA, Niger State | |||||
| Kәr | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | tKәr | sg. wauKәr, pl. Kәrne | Kela, Adoma Kelanci Kilinci | Keri–Ni Kelawa | Kebbi State, Zuru and Wasagu LGAs, north of Mahuta but south of the Kag river | |||||
| Koor | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | t–ma–Koor | sg. wauKoor, pl. aKoor | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, around Bakara | |||||||
| Ror | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | Dialect used for language development | ǝt–ma–Ror | sg. wauRor, pl. aRor | Tudawa d–Gwan | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA around Birnin Tudu | |||||
| Us | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | Us have no specific dialect but speak like the Ror | tUs | sg. wauUs, pl. aUs, asUs | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, west of Fakai | ||||||
| Zuksun | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | tZuksun | sg. wauZuksun, pl. aZuksun | Zusu Wipsi–ni | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA around Tungan Kuka, south of Fakai | ||||||
| Wuri-Gwamhyә–Mba | Northern | Gwamfi | wa–Gwamhi sg. a–Gwamhi pl. and wa–Wuri sg. a–Wuri pl. | Banganci | Lyase–ne Dәknu Bangawa for Gwamhi | Two peoples with one language | Kebbi State, Wasagu LGA; Gwamhi around Danko town and Wuri around Maga town | The term Wurkum is applied to the Kyak, Banda, Kulung, Kwonci, Maghdi, Kholok, Mingang, Pero, Piya, and Nyam group, several of which remain to be investigated. | ||||
| cLela | Northwestern | Zuru, Ribah | cLela (Clela, C–Lela), Lelna | Kәlela sg., Lelna pl. | Chilala Dakarci | Lalawa, Dakarkari, Dakkarkari, Kalla–Kalla, Cala–Cala | 47,000 (1949 G&C); 69,000 (1971 Welmers) | Kebbi State, Zuru, Sakaba and Wasagu LGAs; Niger State, Rijau LGA. Around Zuru town | ||||
| Rin | Shiroro | Awәgә is sometimes classified as a dialect of Rin, but it may in fact be a distinct but vanishing language spoken by one Rin clan. | Tә̀rĩ́, Tarin | sg. Bùrĩ,́ pl. Arĩ ́ | Arringeu, Pongu, Pongo, Pangu | 3,675 (1949 HDG); >20,000 (1988) | Niger State, Rafi LGA, near Tegina | Despite the indigenous name, forms of Pangu are preferred by the community for publications purposes. |
Numerals
Comparison of numerals in individual languages:[7]
| Classification | Language | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Western, Reshe | Reshe (Tsureshe) | tsúnnɛ̀ | rìsə̄ | tàtswā | nāʃẽ́ | tɔ̃̄ | tēnzɔ̄ | tànsã̄ | dálànzɔ̀ | tānāʃẽ́ | úpwà |
| Western, Basa | Bassa | hĩn | jèbí | tàtɔ | néʃì | táná | tʃìhin | tʃéndʒe | tɔndatɔ | tʃíndʒìʃì | uḿpwá |
| Western, Duka | C'lela | tʃĩ́ | ʔílɨ̀ | tɨ́ːt͡ʃù | náːsé | tã́ | t͡ʃíhĩ̀ | tã̀ʔílɨ̀ (5 + 2) | jɨ́ːɾù | dóːɾè | ʔóːpá |
| Western, Duka | ut-Ma'in | tʃɘ̄ːn | jɘ̄ːr | tɘ̄t | náːs | tán | ʃìʃìn | tàʔèr (5 + 2) ? | éːr | dʒʷɘ̄ːr | ɔ̄p |
| Western, Kambari | Tsishingini (Kambari) | íyyán | ìɾɛ̀ | tàʔàtsú | nə́ʃín | táːwún | tə̀ːlí | tʃìndɛ̀ɾɛ́ | kùnlə̀ | kùttʃí | kùppá |
| Western, Kamuku | Western Acipa (Cicipu) | tôː | jápù | tâːtù | nósì | tã̂u | tóɾíhĩ̀ | tíndàjà | kùrílːò | kùtítːí | ùkúpːà |
| Western, Kamuku | Cinda (Kamuku) | ĩ́jɑ́ | ⁿdə́ɰə̀ | tɑ́tɔ̀ | nə́ʃì | tɑ́ɑ̀ | tə́nə́hì | tə́ndə́ɰə̀ | tə́ntɑ́tɔ̀ | tə́ndə́ʃì | òpɑ́ |
| Western, Kamuku | Fungwa (Cifungwa) | ń / biké | jógò | tátù | nɔ́ʃì | tá | tʃíjĩ̀ | tĩ́dòlò | tĩ́dátù | tĩ́díʃì | húpɛ́ |
| Western, Kamuku | Hungworo (Hungwere) | ĩ́ːjə̃́ | ʔʲə̃̂d͡ʒə̀ | tât̼ɔ̀ | ùnə́sĩ̀ | sàtá | ūt̼únìhĩ̄ | ūtə́ndə̀ɾʲə̄ | ūtátàt̼ɔ̄ (2 x 4) ? | ūtə́nə̀sĩ̄ | īkópʲè |
| Western, Kamuku | Pongu (Pangu) | hĩ́ː | ɾêːnù | tâːtù | nə̃́ːʃĩ̀ | tá | tʃíníhì | tə̃́ndə́ɾə̀ | tə̃́ndáːtù | tṹndúʃì | úpwá |
| Eastern, Northern Jos, Jera | Anaguta (Iguta) | dínkā | rɛ̀ːpú | tààrū / tàːrū | nàːnzī | ʃùːbì | twàːsì | súnāːrí | ùrū | tɔ̀rbɔ̀ | būtúːrú |
| Eastern, Northern Jos, Kauru | Gure (Gbiri-Niraɡu) | pi:ʃem | piːbɑː | piːtær | piːnɑːz | piːʃiː | piːtæ ʃi | piːsundæriː | piːkunæs | piːturuːriː | kiʃiːæbɑː / nikpiːrinætʃeti |
| Eastern, Northern Jos, Kauru | Kurama (Akurmi) | nìdíi | tɨɽyá | tɨtáaɽɔ | tɨnáazɛ | úʃii | útasɛ | úsúndèɽì | úɽiɽé | ùtáɽá | níkúɽí |
References
- 1 2 Blench, Roger (2012). "The Kainji languages of northwestern and central Nigeria" (PDF). Cambridge: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation.
- 1 2 Blench, Roger M. 2018. Nominal affixing in the Kainji languages of northwestern and central Nigeria. In John R. Watters (ed.), East Benue-Congo: Nouns, pronouns, and verbs, 59–106. Berlin: Language Science Press. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1314323
- ↑ McGill, Stuart. 2012. The Kainji languages. Ms, School of Oriental and African Studies, London, 30 August 2012.
- ↑ Gerhardt, Ludwig. 1983. Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Sprachen des Nigerianischen Plateaus. Glückstadt: Verlag J. J. Augustin.
- ↑ Maddieson, Ian. 1972. The Benue-Congo Languages of Nigeria. Sheet 1 and 2: Plateau. Mimeographed paper. Ibadan.
- 1 2 Blench, Roger (2019). An Atlas of Nigerian Languages (4th ed.). Cambridge: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation.
- ↑ Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.
- Blench, Roger. 2012. The Kainji languages of northwestern and central Nigeria.
- The Kainji languages (Roger Blench)
This article incorporates text available under the CC BY 3.0 license.
External links
- ComparaLex, database with Kainji word lists
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