Yildirim Army Group

Ottoman Arab Camel Corps

Germany had suggested that six or seven Ottoman divisions released as a consequence of the Russian Army's withdrawal from the war, should attack Mesopotamia with German support. Germany would supply ammunition, equipment, troops and gold along with one of Germany's "most distinguished soldiers", Erich von Falkenhayn, and an Army Headquarters staff. These German reinforcements included the German Asia Corps, three battalion groups of "handpicked and thoroughly trained" infantry, very strongly supported by artillery, machine guns, mortars, aircraft and mechanical transport. The Ottoman Empire would contribute a new Seventh Army made up of divisions transferred from the Caucasus and the Balkan fronts.^[20]

Following the formation of the Yildirim Army Group in June 1917, substantial forces were deployed to Syria and Palestine, where they continued to hold the Fourth Army defences. Already in Palestine were the 3rd, 7th, 16th, and 54th Infantry Divisions while the 26th 27th, and 53rd Infantry Divisions arrived during the summer. The 3rd, 7th 16th, and 26th Infantry Divisions had fought in the Gallipoli campaign and the 3rd Cavalry Division had fought in the Caucasian Campaigns. These seven infantry divisions and one cavalry division formed the recently activated Ottoman Eighth Army.^[21][22]

On establishment, the Yildirim Army Group consisted of Ottoman Army troops already in Palestine and Mesopotamia. These included the 19th and the 20th Divisions from Galicia, the 24th and the 42nd Divisions from the Dardanelles, the 48th Division from the Caucasus, the 50th Division from Macedonia and the 59th from Adana in the Gulf of Iskanderun. The 1st and 11th Divisions were also transferred from the Caucasus to the Yildirim Army Group, arriving in time for the attempt to retake Jerusalem at the end of December, and in March 1918 respectively.^{[23][Note 1]}

In August 1917, the Yildirim Army Group consisted of:

• Seventh Army, Syria (Mirliva Mustafa Kemal Atatürk)
  • III Corps
    • 24th Division (3,200 rifles)
  • XV Corps
    • 19th Division (est. 4,000 rifles)
    • 20th Division
  • German Asia Corps
• Sixth Army, Mesopotamia (Mirliva Halil Kut)
  • XIII Corps
    • 2nd Division
    • 6th Division
  • XVIII Corps
    • 14th Division
    • 51st Division
    • 52nd Division
  • 46th Division^[15][24]
• 42nd Division
• 48th Division^[25]
  • XX Corps at Huj
    • 16th Division (3,789 rifles)
    • 54th Division (2,738 rifles)
    • 178th Infantry Regiment
    • 3rd Cavalry Division
  • XXII Corps at Gaza
    • 3rd Division (3,698 rifles)
    • 7th Division (2,886 rifles)
    • 53rd Division (3,100 rifles)^[17][16]
• 26th Division (2,901 rifles)
• 27th Division (2,408 rifles 76% Arab)
• 12th Depot Regiment (2,336 rifles 97% Arab)
• 136th Regiment (1,011 rifles)^[24]

The total infantry "rifle strengths" for the 12 units on 30 September was 28,067 plus the 19th Division's 4,000 giving a total of 32,067 rifles supported by 268 guns. The two 3rd Cavalry Division regiments in the area had 1,400 sabres, while the third regiment of the division was deployed east of the Jordan River.^[24] These rifle figures at 30 September overlook the 25% of rifles of each infantry battalion, which were progressively replaced with machine guns, beginning on 10 August 1917.^[26]

By mid-September 1917 the Ottoman Army had decided against the attempt to retake Baghdad. Enver Pasha took von Falkenhayn's advice to send the Yildirim Army Group to Palestine, to face the growing threat reported by Kress von Kressenstein. Enver Pasha issued orders on 26 September for the Fourth Army headquarters to move to Damascus, at the same time dividing the area in half, leaving Cemal Pasha with responsibility for Syria and western Arabia. On 2 October, Enver Pasha activated the new Eighth Army, commanded by Kress von Kressenstein, and deployed it along with the Seventh Army, commanded by Mustafa Kemal, to the Yildirim Army Group, commanded by von Falkenhayn. However, in late September Mustafa Kemal disagreed with some of Enver Pasha's decisions and the new command structure. He advised adopting a defensive military policy, in response to the superior British lines of communications, which would ensure continued numerical superiority in any contested theatre. He thought this imbalance would make it impossible for the Yildirim Army Group to go on the offensive. He advised merging the Seventh and the Eighth Armies, offering to step down in favour of Kress von Kressenstein. Several weeks later Mustafa Kemal resigned and Fevzi Pasa took command of the Seventh Army which was still assembling near Aleppo.^[27] By October 1917 the headquarters of the Eighth Army commanded by Kress von Keressenstein was at Huleikat to north of Huj.^[28]

These massive reorganisations began to be implemented in October, but by the end of the month, only the headquarters of the Seventh and Eighth Armies were in position to take the field.^[29] On 1 October, the Eighth Army consisted of 2,894 officers, 69,709 men, 29,116 rifles, 403 machine guns, 268 artillery pieces, and 27,575 animals.^[30] Between 10 and 28 October 1917, the Eighth Army shifted three infantry divisions to reserve positions, although the defence of Beersheba remained the responsibility of the Ottoman III Corps, consisting of the mainly Arab 27th Infantry Division, and the 2nd Infantry Regiment "minus its machine guns," with the two regiments of the 3rd Cavalry Division.^[31]

On 28 October, orders were issued by von Falkenhayn's Yildirim Army Group headquarters, directing Kress von Kressenstein's Eighth Army to assume responsibility for the western, or Gaza half, of the Ottoman front line, while Fevzi Pasa's Seventh Army took responsibility for the eastern half including Beersheba. The III Corps headquarters which commanded the 27th Infantry Division and the 3rd Cavalry Division was transferred from the Eighth to the Seventh Army. The 16th and 24th Infantry Divisions and the 19th Infantry Division on its way south were also assigned to the Seventh Army.^[32] Both the 19th and 24th Divisions arrived before the battle began.^[23] Kress von Kressenstein later described the 27th Infantry Division defending Beersheba, as 'badly trained, badly organised, and composed of Arabs who had to be watched'. He recommended the division be deactivated and its soldiers deployed elsewhere as reinforcements. He suggested the 19th Infantry Division, Mustafa Kemal's "famous Gallipoli division," replace it at Beersheba.^[31] Regarded by the Ottoman General Staff as the most powerful infantry division in the Ottoman Army's order of battle, the 19th Division which had also served in Galicia, had an unusually powerful artillery component. The commander of the Yildirim Army Group, von Falkenhayn, ordered the 19th Infantry Division moved into reserve near Cemame [Jemame?] nearer to Gaza than Beersheba.^[31]

By 31 October, nine Ottoman infantry divisions and one cavalry division with a total strength of up to 45,000 rifles, 1,500 sabres and 300 guns defended the Gaza to Beersheba line. Gaza was defended by the Eighth Army's XXII Corps, with its XX Corps defending Sheria, while the Seventh Army's III Corps defended Beersheba. The recently arrived commander of the Seventh Army, Fevzi Pasha, "played no active role in command during the early stages of the third battle of Gaza and the entire front remained under Kress's control."^[33]

Assault battalions

Each infantry division was reorganised into three infantry regiments, each consisting of three infantry battalions, and one assault battalion. The specialised assault or storm troop divisions of the German Army were never formed by the Ottoman Army.^[34] However, the assault battalions were established by order of Enver Pasha on 1 September 1917, during a general activation of Stoßtruppen style assault troops, across the whole Ottoman Army. The XV Corps, the First Army and the Fourth Army established the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Assault Battalions respectively. In addition, Enver Pasha ordered each infantry division in the Yildirim Army Group and in the Fourth Army, to establish assault detachments consisting of the best officers, NCOs, and men from the best units in the division. These soldiers were required to be 27 years old or younger, intelligent, healthy and strong. Each assault unit was given a one-month assault course, better rations, and a badge embroidered with a hand grenade.^[35]

Aircraft

During October, 56 aircraft in Nos. 301, 302, 303 and 304 Squadrons of the German Flying Corps, arrived in Palestine from Germany. At the time No. 14 (Ottoman) Squadron's A.E.G. two-seaters, were stationed at Kutrani.^[36]

Characteristics

It has also been claimed that after "Russia's collapse in 1917" that reinforcements needed in Palestine were sent to the Caucasus, leaving the Ottoman army low in morale. In describing the situation, Hughes writes that "many had received no mail from home in years. The hapless Turkish recruits awaited the EEF assault in 'fragile tents' with 'nothing to cheer their spirits'."^[37] This was because "the condition of the Ottoman railway system was such that the Turks had difficulty maintaining any substantial force in Palestine either for defensive or offensive operations." Based on a single track for 1,275 miles, with sections of standard and narrow gauge, the Ottoman lines of communication have been described as "appalling."^[38]

The Ottoman Army in Palestine in 1917 continued to demonstrate most of the characteristics they had during the first two years of war. The army was operationally and tactically aggressive, executing both defensive and offensive operations and training continuously in realistic, up-to-date methods at troop level and in centralised settings. According to Erickson, "[d]ivisions were task-organised" for a variety of "specific tactical missions." The commanders were experienced, highly trained and capable leaders who "continued to function well in its third year of a multi-front total war."^[39]

However, it has also been claimed that the Ottoman front line infantry battalions were "operating at about half strength." The 21st Infantry Regiment on 26 October, according to the Turkish General Staff Archives was claimed to be "at half strength in trained men" and reinforcements were failing to keep up with "sick and battle casualties." Their last battle had been a decisive victory seven months previous, in April, from behind strong fortifications. Captain Hüseyin Hüsnü Emir, Assistant Chief of Staff of the Yildirim Army Group, claimed the 16th Division which had 200 officers, 400 NCOs and 10,900 men in September 1916, had been reduced to only 5,017 officers and men by 15 October 1917. Then the "three infantry battalions in its 78th Infantry Regiment numbered about 400 men each (out of an authorisation of about 750 men per battalion)." He also claimed that every division in the Gaza defences was below strength by 50 per cent, but there is no mention of the establishment of assault battalions. In addition, chronic failures due to casualties and manpower shortages, were reported as being "compounded by terrible attrition from disease and desertion." On 3 August 1917, the Yildirim Army Group reported "a deficit of some 70,000 soldiers", and that even the proposed reinforcements would leave them 40,000 short.^[40] According to Hussein Husni's Yilderim, "in September 1917 Mustafa Kemal, the commander of the Seventh army in Palestine, reported to Enver Pasha that 50 per cent of the arriving 54th division were either too young or old; [no source] a battalion of one of the best divisions left Istanbul 1,000 strong, only to arrive at Aleppo with 500 men. [note 76 Hussein Husni, Yilderim, Part 1, Chapter 4 (also appendix 16).] "^[41]

According to Massey, rations and leadership amongst the divisions facing the British Empire troops were also poor, writing "if the...[Ottoman Army]...had been well led and properly rationed," the Ottoman 3rd, 7th, 16th, 19th, 20th, 24th, 26th, 27th, 53rd, and 54th Divisions and the 3rd Cavalry Division, should have been able to resist more strongly.^[42]

Gaza-Beersheba line

Western section of the Gaza–Beersheba Line

After April, the defences at Gaza had been strengthened. Many of the houses were built on a ridge, each with its own garden surrounded by high cactus hedges, enclosing an area at least 1 mile (1.6 km) deep. Along with this formidable area the 12,000 yards (11,000 m) of trenching west of the town needed to be attacked by infantry as Allenby did not have enough artillery to do the job.^[43] Both Sheria and Beersheba were particularly strongly fortified by the Ottoman force, permanent strongly entrenched and wired positions were constructed from the sea at Gaza to Shellal on the Wadi Ghazzeh, defended by infantry.^[44][45] An Ottoman appreciation stated that due to lack of water any attack on Beersheba could only be made by one cavalry and one infantry division.^{[46][Note 2]}

The well-sited Ottoman defences relied on entrenched Ottoman soldiers ready to take every opportunity to counterattack. Both Gaza and Beersheba were virtually ringed by fortifications. An attack was expected by the EEF and the Ottoman Army knew about EEF preparations for an attack.^[22]

The strength of the Yildirim Army Group units holding the Gaza to Beersheba line was estimated at 40,000 rifles, although the figure was later found to be closer to 33,000 rifles, 1,400 sabres and 260 guns, including the reserve 19th Division at 'Iraq el Menshiye, and the 12th Depot Regiment at Hebron.^{[17][Note 3]} While both Sheria and Beersheba were particularly strongly fortified by the Ottoman defenders, there were permanent strongly entrenched and wired positions stretching from the sea at Gaza to Shellal on the Wadi Ghazzeh.^[44][45]

On 31 October, the defenders of the Gaza to Beersheba line had been increased to nine divisions and one cavalry division.^[47] The Yildirim Army Group's pre–battle deployment saw the Gaza–Beersheba line held by two field armies "abreast." On the right, the Eighth Army with headquarters at Huleikat north of Huj deployed,

XXII Corps commanded by Refet Bey with headquarters at Jebaliye holding the strongly fortified positions around Gaza with the 3rd, 53rd Divisions

XX Corps commanded by Ali Fuad Bey with headquarters at Huj held Sheria with the 16th, 26th, 54th Divisions, holding the line eastwards with the 26th and 54th Divisions

Army Reserve at Deir Sneid the 7th Division and the 19th Division, which was either at Iraq el Menshiye 25 miles (40 km) north of beersheba and 19 miles (31 km) north–east of Gaza, or at an assembly area 20 kilometres (12 mi) behind the front.^[22][47][48]

Gaza had been developed into a strong fortress, heavily entrenched and wired. Stretching from the Mediterranean Sea on either side of Gaza a series of strong groups of positions at Sihan, Atawineh, Abu Hariera-Arab el Teeaha and Beersheba, ran eastwards for 30 miles (48 km) to a point south of Sharia.^[12] Extending across the railway, these groups of defensive positions had "every advantage of observation over the long bare slopes which an attacker must cross." Beyond these main positions there was a gap of about 8 miles (13 km) to the defences at Beersheba where the desert country, minimized the threat of an EEF attack. However strong defences had been developed to the west and south–west of Beersheba with a garrison from the Seventh Army of 5,000 protecting its important wells,^[18] supported by a number of high entrenched hills around Beersheba.^[49]

Beersheba end of the Gaza–Beersheba Line

The Seventh Army on the left, commanded by Fevzi Pasha was deployed –

III Corps at Kauwukah or in XX Corps reserve near Kh. Jemmame east of Huj (24th Division) at Beersheba (27th, 16th Divisions, 3rd Cavalry Division) also at Beersheba.^[22][47][48]

Beersheba was defended by the Ottoman 27th Division, reinforced by battalions from the 16th and 24th Divisions.^[50] Here, the fortifications consisted of two lines of defensive positions. The outer line circled the town from the Gaza to Beersheba road where the line passed through the high ground to the north–west of Beersheba before continuing to the west and south–west of Beersheba, to Ras Ghannam. Situated on average about 7,000 yards (6,400 m) from Beersheba, this semi–circle of defences was heavily entrenched and wired. To the north–east, east and south–east the outer line of defences consisted of a series redoubts or strong posts on the high ground at Tel el Sakaty and Tel el Saba, along with two stone block–houses defending the north bank of the Wadi Saba. The second inner line of defences completely encircled Beersheba the town itself, crossing the Wadi Saba just to the south of the railway bridge.^[51] Before the battle, Kress von Kressenstein recommended that the wells at Beersheba be destroyed and the garrison withdrawn to the hills north of the town, because he considered there were not enough troops to successfully defend Beersheba. He argued that from the hills to the north, the Beersheba garrison could attack the flank of any EEF units moving against Hareira and Sheria, but von Falkenhayn rejected this advice.^[52]

Aircraft

The Army Wing aircraft were assigned to carry out strategic reconnaissances, to report on Ottoman reserves well behind their lines, and carry out photography duties and air raids. Army fighter squadron was to provide protection from hostile air attack, while the Army bombing squadron was prepared to conduct bombing air raids. The Corps Squadrons of aircraft attached to the two infantry corps, carried out artillery and contact patrols, along with tactical reconnaissance. Photography of the opposition's trenches was normally carried out daily by the Army Wing. One flight of aircraft attached to XX Corps, was responsible for carrying out artillery and contact patrols and tactical reconnaissances for Desert Mounted Corps.^[69]

As well as the arrival of British troops, all types of war material along with heavy guns, motor transport, up-to-date fast aircraft replaced the slow aircraft, which had been outpaced by the German Fokker and Albatross Scout aircraft. The first of the new R.E.8s arrived at No. 1 Squadron on 17 October along with new Martinsydes, fitted with a 160-hp engine instead of the old 120-hp engines. As a result, control of the air gradually moved to the EEF from the Ottoman Army, which had held it since the Sinai campaign.^[70][71][72]

New Bristol Fighter aircraft arrived in ones and twos to establish No. 111 Squadron RFC which was shortly followed by No. 113 Squadron RFC, which took over corps operations, and to relieve No. 1 Squadron of some trench reconnaissances, as it in turn became a specialist bombing squadron. New pilots and observers from the training school, reported to the squadrons and in August, No. 1 Squadron was authorised by A.I.F. Headquarters, to hold a reserve of fifty per cent of flying officers above establishment. The full value of this provision not become fully utilised until the air war of 1918.^[73]

Sherifial Forces

Allenby was hopeful that Lawrence and the Sherifial Arab force could support a September attack, recognising that they were involved with harvests before September, but "must get going before the end of September" prior to their normal move to camel grazing lands in the Syrian desert. "They, naturally, won't and can't do much unless I move; and it is not much use their destroying the Turks' communications unless I take immediate advantage of such destruction ... If I bring them into the fight and do not make progress myself, this will also expose them to retaliation – which to some tribes, such as the Druzes, S. of Damascus, may mean annihilation."^[74]

The Arab rebellion is spreading well, and the Turkish communications will be difficult to guard against their raids. The enclosed photograph of the Shereef of Mecca, and the proclamation by him, is one of the means we have of inducing the Arabs to desert the Turks. We drop these papers and packets of cigarettes over the Turkish lines from aeroplanes. The proclamation is an appeal from the Shereef to the Arabs to leave the Turks and join in the war against them for the freedom and independence of Arabia. A good many come in, as a result of our propaganda.

— Allenby letter to his wife 3 October 1917^[75]

Supplies

Allenby's strategic plans for the capture of the Beersheba line and the eventual capture of Jerusalem, required the complete determination of the commander, and efficient supply lines to support the mobility of his force. The offensive relied completely on efficient lines of communication.^[76] In order for two divisions to cross the arid country to attack Beersheba, elaborate arrangement for the supply of water, food and ammunition were necessary. Indeed the absence of water dictated that the attack had to be decisive, otherwise the mounted divisions would be forced to withdraw to water.^[77]

However, a series reconnaissances and work by field engineers in the apparently waterless desert, based on intelligence produced sufficient water, to the west of Beersheba for the horses, and the horses circling to the south in a wide arch.^{[78][Note 8]} Records of the Palestine Exploration Society revealed that Khalasa had been the site of the Greek city of Eleusa, 13 miles (21 km) south west of Beersheba and that Asluj had been a large town, 16 miles (26 km) south of Beersheba. The likelihood of finding water at these two places was investigated by the Commander of the Royal Engineers, Desert Mounted Corps and confirmed during discussions with the inhabitants of the area. Plans were made to develop these water sources.^[79] A 48-hour reconnaissance from Tel el Fara was carried out from 23 to 25 September to survey the roads and water in the Esani and Khalasa areas.^[80]

During the night of 20/21 October units of the XX Corps were sent forward to form supply dumps and to store water at Esani while Desert Mounted Corps engineers developed water at Khalasa and Asluj which had previously been reconnoitred by them. The standard gauge line to Imara was completed and the station opened on 28 October. The railway line was extended to a point .75 miles (1.21 km) north-north-east of Karm and a station opened there on 3 November. The light railway from the east bank of the wadi Ghazzeh at Gamli via Karm to Khasif was completed on 30 October. Between 22 October and 1 November water at Mendur to Sheik Ajilin was developed by the XXI Corps, at Esani, Imara, Karm and Khasif by the XX Corps and at Abu Ghalyun, Malaga, Khalassa and Asluj by Desert Mounted Corps. Cisterns in the Khasif and Imsiri area were filled with 60,000 gallons of water for the 53rd and 74th Divisions, to be supplemented by camel convoys.^[81][82]

After the 2nd Light Horse Brigade moved to Bir el Esani and the ICCB to Abu Ghalyun, the work continued night and day on the development of water. These two brigades were supported by the field squadrons of the Anzac and Australian Mounted Divisions. Allenby personally inspected the watering points at Shellal works and watched the engineers cleaning out the wells at Khalassa and Asluj. His surprise arrival and keen interest gave those carrying out the difficult, dirty work a sense of the importance Allenby attached to their work.^[83][84]

Regarding the importance of water, historian Matthew Hughes wrote: "[w]ater was the determining factor in the success or otherwise of Allenby's plan at the third battle of Gaza."^{[85][Note 9]} Allenby acknowledged the problem on 21 August, saying "[t]he wells will probably be blown". He believed that there would be "some water" in the Wadi es Saba and Wadi el Imaleh but he was uncertain of the amount, acknowledging that it was "...the driest time of the year."^[86] Fortunately for the British plan, though, thunderstorms on 25 October had left pools of water over a wide area.^[87] While all possible steps were taken to ensure full and regular supplies, Allenby's administrative instructions included the following caveat: "[t]hese calculations are based on the scale of full mobile rations. It may be necessary to double all distances and to place the force on half rations."^[88] Nevertheless, Hughes notes that "without the water at Beersheba the cavalry was reliant on the rail terminals at Karm or even Rafah."^[89]

Southern Judean Hills towards Hebron

For a week, the Ottoman defenders continued to hold most of the old Gaza to Beersheba line after the capture of Beersheba, including Sheria, and Gaza along with Tank and Atawineh redoubts.^[102] "It was not water so much as strong defence and cool action under fire by the enemy which held its line for seven days after the fall of Beersheba which allowed its army to retire in an orderly fashion."^[102] However recent histories have remained focused on the issue of water. "Water was the determining factor in the success or otherwise of Allenby's plan at the third battle of Gaza."^[85] Indeed, the return of the Australian Mounted Division to water at Karm has been describes as negating "the whole purpose of the flanking operation ... the attempt to cut off the enemy forces had failed" due to delays caused by water difficulties.^[103]

After the loss of Beersheba, the Ottoman defenders withdrew north north west towards Tel esh Sheria and northwards towards Tel el Khuweilfe.^[104][105] Those who retired northward were to defend the Seventh Army headquarters at Hebron and the road north to Jerusalem less than 50 miles (80 km) away. Here a considerable Ottoman force, including all available reserve units, were deployed in the Tel el Kuweilfeh area to face strong attacks by the Anzac Mounted Division. These attacks which began the day after Beersheba was captured, were strongly resisted during the Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe by the Ottoman defenders who feared a major cavalry attack.^[106][107]

Mediterranean coast

During the Third Battle of Gaza, several attacks were made by the XXI Corps by the 52nd (Lowland), the 54th (East Anglian) and the 75th Divisions.^[108] The main purpose of these operations was to keep the Ottoman garrison of 8,000 riflemen supported by 116 guns in place. The XXI Corps launched an attack at 23:00 during the night of 1/2 November towards Umbrella Hill. The second attack a few hours later at 03:00 was launched towards the El Arish Redoubt.^{[109][110][111]} These attacks, which concentrated on a 2 miles (3.2 km) long section of the defences between Umbrella Hill and the coast, aimed to capture three groups of trench complexes or redoubts, called el Arish, Rafa, and Cricket by the EEF. These fortifications were strongly connected by a "series of trench lines several layers thick, and backed by other trenches and strongpoints."^[112] During these attacks, which were never intended to capture Gaza, just the first line of Ottoman trenches, the XXI Corps utilised new infantry tactics, and were supported by tanks and a large quantity of artillery, organised according to a western front-style of deployment.^[113]

In the centre

Ottoman Artillery at Hareira

The main flank attack on the Ottoman front line stretching from Gaza, was made on 6 November by the EEF in the centre at Hareira and Sheria, and a gap was created for the Desert Mounted Corps to advance to capture Huj on their way to the Mediterranean coast.^[114][115]

However, there were less than 8,000 horsemen available out of the 17,000 in Desert Mounted Corps.^[116] Only three light horse and one mounted brigades were immediately available on 7 November to participate in the breakthrough. They were the 1st and the 2nd Light Horse Brigades (Anzac Mounted Division), the 4th Light Horse and the 5th Mounted Brigades while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade (Australian Mounted Division), waited to be relieved from outpost work connecting the XX and the XXI Corps.^[117] Desert Mounted Corps’ strength had been cut by one third by the decision to leave the Yeomanry Mounted Division, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, and the 11th and the 12th Light Armoured Car Batteries in the Judean Hills supporting the 53rd (Welsh) Division attacks at Tel el Khuweilfe. The Anzac Mounted Division was also less two squadrons and machine guns, and most of the Division's Field Squadron Australian Engineers which were still working to improve the amount of water flowing from the Beersheba wells.^[118]

Tel es Sheria bridge

By 09:00 the Australian Mounted Division (less one brigade) was to connect at Kh. Buteihah with the Anzac Mounted Division which was steadily pushing back Ottoman posts to gain space for manoeuvre.^[119] However, the Australian Mounted Division was not in a position to advance until after dark, because of delays in the capture of Tel esh Sheria.^[120] After participating in the unsuccessful charge, the horses of the 11th Light Horse Regiment were watered at 06:00 at the Sheria Water Tower on 8 November, where the regiment was issued with rations and forage from their B1 echelon's special emergency rations. At 07:30 the 4th Light Horse Brigade informed the regiment that the brigade was moving at 09:00 in a northerly direction up the Wadi Sudeh.^[121] The 4th Light Horse Brigade concentrated .5 miles (0.80 km) south of Tel el Sheria and the 12th Light Horse Regiment moved off with the brigade northwards. Ottoman columns were reported retreating northwards from Atawineh towards Huj and Beit Hanun at midnight 7/8 November.^[122]

Meanwhile the opposing forces fighting for the Khuweilfeh Ridge, continued their long drawn-out struggle on 7 November without much change. Towards the evening the Ottoman forces began to withdraw, to conform with a general retirement along the length of the whole Ottoman defensive line, including Gaza and Sheria.^[123] At Gaza, a series of EEF infantry attacks during the night of 6 November were not strongly resisted and when a general advance occurred during the morning of 7 November the town was found to have been abandoned.^[124] The town which had a population of 40,000 people before the war, was completely deserted.^[125][126] By that evening, although not many prisoners had been captured "the enemy had been ejected from strong positions" which had been held successfully against the EEF for eight months.^[127]

Beit Hanun and Wadi el Hesi

It has been claimed the XXI Corps had no cavalry to "pursue" the retreating Ottoman army "up the coastal plain."^[85] However, the pursuit which eventually ended some 50 miles (80 km) north, began during the morning of 7 November when the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade advanced out of Gaza to reach Beit Hanun where they encountered part of the Gaza garrison defending a strong rearguard position on a ridge 1.5 miles (2.4 km) south-east of Beit Hanun. While they succeeded in occupying a ridge west of Beit Hanun the village remained in Ottoman hands, until retiring behind the Wadi Hesi, 7 miles (11 km) north north east of Gaza in the sand dunes and in the cultivated area. Yildirim Army Group had marched through the night, to gain distance and time to establish a light entrench line defending water sources. Here, they were attacked by the 157th Brigade (52nd Division) which had marched north from Gaza. However, the Ottoman forces succeeded in holding the Wadi all day, resisting the EEF advance strongly, until late on 8 November.^{[147][148][149]}

The casualties suffered by the XX Corps between 31 October and 7 November were, 932 killed, 4,444 wounded and 108 missing. During this period they captured 2,177 prisoners, 45 guns, seven trench mortars and 50 machine guns.^[150]

Huj

Ottoman Army howitzer captured near Huj now on display outside Victoria Barracks, Melbourne.

The advance towards Huj by the Australian Mounted Division, with the 60th (London) Division, resumed on 8 November, when another strong rearguard of artillery and machine-guns was encountered.^[157][158] While suffering "considerable shell fire," the 5th Mounted Brigade advanced on the left of the 60th (London) Division. During a personal reconnaissance by Major General Shea commanding the 60th (London) Division, he saw a "straggling column of enemy moving from west to east some three miles (4.8 km) ahead and a flank guard with artillery hastily taking up a position to the right front." He commanded the 5th Mounted Brigade to charge the Ottoman flank guard.^[159] A small contingent made a cavalry charge at Huj with sabres. These 200 men from the 1/1st Warwickshire Yeomanry and the 1/1st Worcestershire Yeomanry suffered heavy casualties but managed to reach the guns and cut down the gunners.^[157] In doing so they destroyed the last of the Ottoman strength south of Huj.^[138] However, no large groups of enemy soldiers were cut off.^[138] While the Australian Mounted Division captured Huj, which had been the site of the headquarters of Kress von Kressenstein's Eighth Army, the Anzac Mounted Division captured Wadi Jemmame and the water supply.^[160]

The 60th (London) Division reached the end of their lines of communication when they bivouacked about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) east of Huj. The division had marched 23.5 miles (37.8 km) between 05:30 on 6 November and 16:30 on 8 November, capturing the Kauwukah and Rushdi systems, and the bridgehead at Sheria; stopping a determined counterattack and pushing Ottoman rearguards from three defensive positions. They captured two 5.9 howitzers, 10 field guns, 21 machine guns, two Lewis guns and anti aircraft guns. The 179th Brigade suffered 28 killed, 274 wounded and two missing, the 180th Brigade suffered 50 killed, 249 wounded and six missing, and the 181st Brigade suffered 35 killed, 207 and 10 missing. The divisional artillery suffered 11 killed and 44 wounded.^[161]

XX and XXI Corps transport problems

Transport wagons. Gaza in the background

Only one infantry division could be supplied and maintained at a distance of 20–25 miles (32–40 km) from railhead, with the camels and wheeled transport allotted to the EEF infantry corps.^[162] During the attack on Beersheba the transport of the XXI Corps had been assigned to supply the XX Corps, which marched back to near railhead at Karm after the victory. Here minimal transport was needed so the transport was sent back to the XXI Corps. Many thousands of camels in long lines slowly converged on their allotted areas, before being loaded up for the advance. Motor lorries caked with dust, also drove westwards across the sand and powdered earth. The sleepless drivers' vehicles were then load up before driving off to supply their infantry units.^[163]

The 60th (London) Division which could not be supplied north of Huj, remained in that area while the transport of the two infantry corps were being reorganised.^[164]

Desert Mounted Corps

So it was only units of the XXI Corps on the coast advancing to attack the Ottoman rearguard defending the Wadi Hesi line, and six mounted brigades of Desert Mounted Corps inland which were available to pursue the Ottoman army. Urgently needing reinforcements, Chauvel ordered the Yeomanry Mounted Division back to Desert Mounted Corps from Barrow's Detachment in the Tel el Khuweilfe area on 8 November.^[164] The Dorset Yeomanry (6th Mounted Brigade, Yeomanry Mounted Division) covered 60 miles (97 km) in 54 hours.^[165][166] Many of the frequent counterattacks directed towards Desert Mounted Corps, were against the right from the foothills of the Judean Hills held by the Seventh Ottoman Army.^[133]

A major Ottoman rearguard south-west of Nejile determined to keep the EEF pursuit away from the water for 24 hours.^{[Note 13]} The pressure of the Anzac Mounted Division with the 7th Mounted Brigade attached, (while the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade was detached from its division) eventually forced the rearguard to give way. However, the 1/1st Sherwood Rangers and the 1/1st South Notts Hussars (7th Mounted Brigade) were vigorously counterattacked at Mudweiweh on the Anzac Mounted Division's right which they "gallantly held off."^[133][131]

The Anzac Mounted Division (less the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade) had ridden out at dawn towards Bureir, about 12 miles (19 km) north–east of Gaza, with the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades in line covering a front of about 6 miles (9.7 km) centred about Abu Dilakh with the 7th Mounted Brigade in reserve on the right of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade.^[147][167] The 1st Light Horse Regiment (1st Light Horse Brigade) advanced at 05:45 towards Tell en Nejile, while the 3rd Light Horse Regiment (1st Light Horse Brigade) remained at Ameidat to guard the right flank. The 5th and 7th Light Horse Regiments (2nd Light Horse Brigade), on the left advanced towards Kh. Jemmame.^[158] The division rode across open, rolling, treeless, firm country dotted with prominent hills or 'tels' designed for cavalry with the Australian Mounted on their left.^[147][167] In the process, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade captured two guns, which had held them up the evening before.^[133]

Horses queue for water at Jemmameh 8 November 1917. Ambulance horses and the end of the queue at 08:30 were watered at 17:30

From 09:00 long columns of retreating Yildirim Army Group units, with guns and transport, were seen moving northwards through Kh. el Kofkha towards Jemmame. After watering their horses at the Wadi Sheria, the 7th Mounted Brigade, arrived at divisional headquarters at 09:00 and was immediately ordered to reinforce the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades in the centre.^[158] At 11:00 the 2nd Light Horse Brigade was counter–attacked strongly on the right of the mounted infantry line, near Tel el Nejile, and was held up while the 7th Mounted Brigade, in the centre, continued to advance towards Bir el Jemameh. By about 13:00 they had nearly reached their objective, when they were heavily attacked by the Ottoman defenders covering the water supply, forcing the brigade back, and endangering its left flank. The 1st Light Horse Brigade came up on the western side of the 7th Mounted Brigade, and drove the Ottoman attackers back, the leading troops of 1st Light Horse Brigade, the 3rd Light Horse Regiment fought their way into Bir el Jemameh/Kh Jemmame shortly after 15:00. Here they captured the wells, cisterns and steam pumping plant intact, including the engineer in charge. While a regiment of the 1st Light Horse Brigade secured the high ground to the north overlooking Bir el Jemameh protecting the area, the remainder of the brigade and the 7th Mounted Brigade, watered all their horses.^[167][168] Meanwhile, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade occupied Tel el Nejil station after dark, when the Ottoman 53rd Division's defenders had retired. Although some water was found here in the Wadi Hesi, it was not possible to water the horses of the outpost troops which established a night outpost line, protecting Nejil.^[167][169]

The Anzac Mounted Division had captured the country from Nejile to the north bank of the wadi Jemmameh, along with 300 prisoners and two guns.^[170] While the Australian Mounted Division advanced round the north side of Huj, their 4th Light Horse Brigade in touch with the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade (XXI Corps) at Beit Hanun. During the day, their 3rd Light Horse Brigade captured prisoners and two Austrian 5.9 howitzers.^[170]

By the evening of 8 November, all the Ottoman positions which had made up the Gaza–Beersheba line had been captured and the enemy was in full retreat.^[156] During 8 November the EEF advanced 8 miles (13 km) to occupy a position due east of Huj, which had been the army headquarters and military railway terminus of the coast line. EEF artillery was then able to get into position just before dark, to fire during the night on the main road leading north from Huj. By the morning of 9 November, the road was littered with guns, limbers, ammunition wagons and transport of all descriptions, jumbled up into heaps with their teams shot.^[171]

The battle is in full swing ... My army is all over the place, now; on a front of 35 miles. I am at the centre of telegraph and telephone lines, in my old headquarters. I have no idea, yet what our captures are; but they will be something big, when all is collected. I hear that some parts of the battlefield are carpeted with dead Turks. My flying men are having the time of their lives; bombing and machine gunning the retreating columns. All my staff wear happy expressions of countenance. I fancy that Kress von Kressenstein is nearing the Jaffa–Jerusalem line, himself. I have many congratulatory telegrams – from the Sultan, the High Commissioner; etc, etc. and from General Maude – who has, himself, had another success; at Tekrit ... I hear of 43 guns captured, so far; but I don't know, for certain. We ought to get a lot eventually.

— Allenby letter to Lady Allenby 8 November 1917^[172]

Historians have characterised the pursuit as a failed attempt to capture the withdrawing Ottoman forces.^[173][174] That the XXI Corps advance from Gaza and the Desert Mounted Corps advance from Tel esh Sheria were to form "two jaws" to cut off and capture the retreating Ottoman armies.^[175] During this period, some horses only had one good drink in four days which had a serious effect on their condition. So only six of the 11 brigades of Desert Mounted Corps were available for the pursuit and having been short of water since leaving Khalasa/Asluj/Easni on 30/31 October their horses were far from fit. The unfit brigades were formed into a reserve corps and returned to areas where feed and water were available. When revived, they became available as reinforcements as the water situation north of Hareira and Sharia was sparsely populated with few very deep, low yielding water wells. Yildirim Army Group's tactics took the geographic conditions into account. They knew that if the EEF was delayed more than 48 hours without water it the pursuit would have to stop so strong rearguards were established to allow their infantry to withdraw well ahead of the slower British infantry. The EEF forces persevered in spite of the long marches on very limited forage and water, to attack the Ottoman forces relentlessly.^[176][177]

No. 304 Bavarian Flying Squadron

Yildirim Army Group suffered a serious loss of aircraft, stores and aerodromes during the retreat. In order to protect their air force, it was decided on 4 November during a conference with Felmy commander of the German Air Force, that one of the new German squadrons based at Irak el Menshiye aerodrome, should move north to a new aerodrome near Junction Station. This move was delayed for three days "owing to urgent need of pilots" but by 7 November, when the move was finally ordered, transport was not available. A staff officer of the Ottoman Eighth Army arrived at 18:00 in a car to order an immediate retreat. No. 304 Squadron requested railway wagons to transport the flying material, but the only ones available were full of corn. The military commissioner argued that the Army Group had ordered provisions be sent back as a priority but the Flying Squadron officer threatened to machine gun the railway station if the wagons were not handed over. The corn was emptied, and the flying squadrons loaded holding up the departure of the train.^[179]

EEF aerial support

Three RE8 fighter aircraft of No 1 Squadron AFC prepare to take off on a bombing raid during the Southern Palestine offensive in November 1917

Air raids by the EEF were carried out during the night of 1/2 November when twelve bombs were dropped on Gaza. On 3 and 4 November air raids were made over the hills north of Beersheba. By 6 November it was reported that Ottoman hospitals were seen being moved back indicating the beginnings of a general retreat towards Mejdel which was also bombed by aircraft.^[180] Bombs were also dropped on the main positions behind the Kauwukah defences, near Um Ameidat, on Gaza and on shelters west of Sheria, and three aerial combats were fought against three hostile aircraft.^[181] During this time German aircraft had rarely been seen, but that afternoon two R.E.8s and two B.E.12.a aircraft from No. 1 Squadron on photography patrol were attacked by four Albatros aircraft and badly damaged.^[182] While a German aircraft was shot down in flames near the Wadi Hesi.^[183]

'Iraq el Menshiye aerodrome and railway station after EEF air raid on 8 November 1917

Up until the Ottoman withdrawal became apparent on 7 November, the Royal Flying Corps had mainly been involved in strategical reconnaissance by the 40th (Army) Wing, while the 5th (Corps) Wing had been undertaking artillery registration and tactical photography. Now most aircraft began bomb and machine gun attacks on the retiring columns.^[184] During the pursuit No. 1 Australian Flying Squadron, carried out the photographic work, taking detailed photos of the country and the position of the enemy immediately ahead, and took part in air raids.^[183] For a full week, they attacked the Ottoman columns with machine guns and bombs, as well as Ottoman infrastructure including aerodromes, transport and artillery, hitting many of their targets.^[185]

Concentrations of Ottoman forces were reported on 7 November at el Mejdel and Beit Duras, to the north of the Wadi Hesi.^[186] While the morning reconnaissance on 8 November reported the enemy retreating from everywhere, but the Ottoman aerial squadrons appeared to have been delayed. On the aerodromes at Julis (just beyond Mejdel), at Arak el Menshiye, and at Et Tine, aircraft were on the ground and many hangars had not yet been dismantled. A bombing raid by 30 aircraft, including nine Australian aircraft, attack the largest aerodromes at Arak el Menshiye in the morning. This raid, together with a repeat in the afternoon, caused considerable damage as 200 bombs were dropped including 48 hits, ten of which hit aircraft on the ground. Several hangars were set on fire or damaged, while aircraft on the ground were also damaged. Aircraft which escaped from Arak el Menshiye and Julis were bombed twice on 9 November. And at Et Tine on 9 November at least nine aircraft were destroyed. When Desert Mounted Corps reached Arak el Menshiye and Et Tine, on 10 and 11 November they found eight destroyed aircraft and the aerodromes along with the Arak el Menshiye railway station in ruins.^[182] Other targets included railway stations and junctions, troops on the march, supply dumps, transport were all continually bombed and machine gunned.^[183][184]

A further five hostile aircraft were destroyed at Ramleh aerodrome and another one at Ludd while the battlefield was covered with debris from aerial and ground bombardments.^[185] Hostile aircraft flew in formations of between two and four aircraft in an attempt to challenge the new superiority of the EEF aircraft but on almost every occasion were unsuccessful. EEF aircraft controlled the skies for a time, although a renewal of the air war occurred on about 24 November.^[184]

During the day RFC dropped nearly 300 bombs on various objectives. Troops and transport north of Julis and Falujeh were bombed with destructive effect and attacked with machine gun fire. In Julis station direct hits were obtained on rolling stock. 120 bombs were dropped later in day in and around El Tine. Several direct hits on hangars, two of which burst into flames. One direct hit on machine on the aerodrome. Stores near railway and station buildings attacked with effect; troops in neighbourhood scattered by a number of bombs dropped among them. Our pilots then descended and machine-gunned them.

— Allenby to Roberson Evening Report 8 November 1917^[187]

Isdud

By 9 November the Eighth Army had retreated 20 miles (32 km) while the Seventh Army "had lost hardly any ground."^[111] Soon after daylight, Chaytor's Anzac Mounted Division set out to ride across the maritime plain towards the coast, having watered their horses the previous evening.^[195][194] By about 08:30 the 1st Light Horse Brigade entered Bureir and around an hour later the 2nd Light Horse Brigade was approaching Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein's Eighth Army headquarters at Hulayqat, where an Ottoman rearguard occupied a strong position. The brigade made a dismounted attack capturing 600 prisoners, large amounts of supplies, materiel and an abandoned German field hospital. At midday El Mejdel, 13 miles (21 km) north-east of Gaza, was occupied by the 1st Light Horse Brigade, when they captured 170 prisoners and found a good well with a steam pump, enabling the brigade to quickly water all horses. After passing the ancient town of Ashkelon the Anzac Mounted Division was notified by the Desert Mounted Corps that the XXI Corps was marching up the coast towards El Mejdel and Julis. As the main Ottoman road and railway leading north from Gaza were both cut Chauvel ordered the division to advance towards Bayt Daras, requiring the division to turn north-east. Subsequently the 1st Light Horse Brigade entered Isdud close to the Mediterranean Sea while, on their right, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade captured the villages of Suafir el Sharkiye and Arak Suweidan, a convoy and its escort (some 350 prisoners). As the brigade was reorganising to secure the prisoners, Ottoman guns further north opened fire, shelling both captors and captives alike. Just before dark the 2nd Light Horse Brigade captured a further 200 prisoners, before the Anzac Mounted Division took up a night battle outpost line, along high ground south of the Wadi Mejma, from near Isdud to Arak Suweidan.^[156][196]

Meanwhile Hodgson's Australian Mounted Division, spent most of 9 November searching for water, which was eventually found at Huj.^[194] By the evening of 8 November, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade had not watered since 7 November and the 5th Mounted Brigade since the evening of 6 November, and that if these two brigades were not watered the following day, the divisional war diary reported, "results will be most serious." After relieving these two brigades at 07:30 on 9 November, the 4th Light Horse brigade sent out patrols searching for water. The 12th Light Horse Regiment found one small well at Nejed, while another patrol found two wells at Simsim with basic lifting appliances which made watering very slow. They also found touch with the Anzac Mounted Division. By noon on 9 November the division was watering at Jemmameh, which was not expected to be completed until 18:00.^[197] After most of the horses had been watered, they advanced 16 miles (26 km) to the Kastina–Isdud line capturing prisoners, guns, and transports on the way. This march made during the night of 9/10 November was the only night march made during the Sinai and Palestine campaign, through Ottoman territory.^[190][198]

The Australian Mounted Division's 12th Light Horse Regiment (4th Light Horse Brigade) advanced north from Burieh to Al-Faluja arriving at 24:00 on 9/10 November when engineering stores and five burnt out aircraft were captured.^[199][200] The division was followed by the 4th Light Horse Brigade Field Ambulance and the divisional train made up of brigade transport and supply sections carrying rations. The field ambulance set up a dressing station and treated about 40 wounded men before moving through Huj at 16:00. After encountering rugged mountainous ravines and 6 miles (9.7 km) of very rough terrain, at around midnight they set up camp in a wadi bed.^[201]

Barrow's Yeomanry Mounted Division, had been fighting in the Tel el Khuweilfe region until Allenby ordered it to rejoin the Desert Mounted Corps, 20 miles (32 km) away on the coast. Meanwhile, infantry in the 10th (Irish) and 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions remained at Karm, while the 60th (London) Division remained at Huj.^{[190][194][202]}

Wadi Sukereir

Falls' Sketch Map 9 shows position of the advance at 1800 on 10 November 1917

Ottoman forces were encountered on 10 November near Isdud on the Mediterranean Sea. The leading brigade of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, the 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade, advanced 15 miles (24 km) despite encountering stiff Ottoman resistance and was subjected to artillery bombardment from across the Nahr Sukereir. The 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade pushing across the Nahr Sukereir at Jisr Isdud, to Hamama. Here they successfully established a bridgehead on the Ottoman right flank. Ample water was found and the bridgehead was enlarged the following day.^[190][203] They followed the 1st Light Horse Brigade which had reported "All Clear" at Isdud at 08:30.^[204]

Although the Anzac Mounted Division reported on the morning of 10 November that the division was "ridden out" and had to halt for water,^[205] the 1st Light Horse Brigade had found water the previous afternoon at el Medjel and so was able to advance to occupy Isdud.^[204] However, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade was unable to advance on 10 November because of strong Ottoman rearguards near "New Beit Duras" and Kustine. They spent the day searching for water and watering the brigade, before moving to Hamama at night, to complete watering of the horses.^[206]

Summeil

The 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered at 10:40 on 10 November to threaten the Ottoman force opposing 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the Menshiye–Al Faluja line.^[199][200] Between 08:00 and 10:30, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade had occupied the Arak el Menshiye Station while the 4th Light Horse Brigade entered Al-Faluja 2 miles (3.2 km) to the north-west.^[207]

The Australian Mounted Division was joined a few hours later by the Yeomanry Mounted Division which had left Huj early in the morning. They came up on the right of the Australian Mounted Division and took over Arak el Menshiye extending the line a little further east. By the afternoon of 10 November the whole of the Desert Mounted Corps with the exception of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, (still at Tel el Khuweilfe) were in line from a point a little east of Arak el Menshiye to the sea.^{[208][209][Note 14]} Both the Australian and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions reconnoitred the eastern half of the Ottoman line running from Qastina, roughly through Balin and Barqusya, to the neighbourhood of Bayt Jibrin in the Judean Hills.^[199][200]

Chauvel ordered the Yeomanry Mounted Division to move westward to the coast to support the Anzac Mounted Division, leaving the Australian Mounted Division on the right flank. Neither he nor Hodgson commanding the Australian Mounted Division were aware at that time, that the division was threatened by three or four Ottoman Eighth Army infantry divisions. The 16th and 26th Divisions (XX Corps) and the 53rd Division (XXII Corps) were holding a 6 miles (9.7 km) line between the railway line and Bayt Jibrin, all more or less reorganised and all within striking distance.^[210] Ottoman trenches had been dug from Summil 4 miles (6.4 km) north of Arak el Menshiye to Zeita, 3 miles (4.8 km) to the north-east, and to the east of the railway line.^[207][211]

With its headquarters at Al-Faluja on 10 and 11 November, the Australian Mounted Division became engaged (during 10 November) in stubborn fighting,^[156][200] when the three brigades of the Australian Mounted Division ran into this Ottoman rearguard's left flank near the village of Summil.^[212] At 12:55, Ottoman forces were seen advancing from Summil, and the 4th Light Horse Brigade deployed to attack them, with the 3rd Light Horse and the 5th Mounted Brigade in support. By 16:30 3rd Light Horse Brigade headquarters were established 870 yards (800 m) south-east of Al-Faluja on the railway line, but owing to darkness at 17:15 the attack was not developed and night battle outpost lines were established at 20:00.^[213] The 4th Light Horse Brigade held a line linking to the Anzac Mounted Division at Beit Affen, while the Ottomans rearguard were holding a ridge near Barqusya with three cavalry troops, three guns and about 1,500 infantry.^[199][200]

Ottoman line

The 20 miles (32 km)-long defensive line, chosen by the Ottoman commanders to rally their 20,000-strong army and stop the invasion of Southern Palestine, was also designed to protect the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway and Junction Station. Prisoners had been captured from almost every unit of the Ottoman Army, indicating that rearguards had been driven back in on the main body of the Eighth Ottoman army. However, all along their line Ottoman resistance grew noticeably stronger.^{[220][221][222]} Erich von Falkenhayn, commander of the Yildirim Army Group, had decided to make a stand in front of Junction Station, deploying his forces by the evening of 11 November and he ordered a counterattack against the British right flank which was covered by the Australian Mounted Division. His plan was to overwhelm them, cut their supply lines, outflank and capture all the forward units. Originally ordered for 11 November it was postponed until the next day.^[223]

Infantry attack

As part of the preparations for the attack on Junction Station, planned for the next day, the 52nd (Lowland) Division made a preparatory attack near the coast. They were to attack north of the Nahr Sukhereir between the villages of Burqa and Yazur with the Yeomanry Mounted Division acting as flank guard.^{[216][224][225]} Their objective was an important Ottoman rearguard position which ran from the village of Burqa to Brown Hill. While the village was easily taken the steep sided Brown Hill proved an extremely difficult attack. The hill was topped by a large cairn and commanded a long field of fire over the plain southwards across the Nahr Sukhereir.^[226] By the time a battalion of the 156th Brigade, covered by two batteries of the 264th Brigade Royal Field Artillery and the South African Field Artillery Brigade of 75th Division captured the crest, the battalion had been reduced to one officer and about 100 men. However, just 20 minutes after their victory, the remnants of the Scots battalion was unable to withstand an Ottoman counterattack and was driven off after a fierce struggle at close quarters.^[227]

The 2/3rd Gurkha Rifles were then ordered to renew the attack at dusk. Owing to poor light, the artillery was no longer able to give much assistance, but the Gurkhas quickly retook the hill with a bayonet charge, suffering 50 casualties, and in the process recovering two Lewis guns.^[228] The fighting here has been described as equal in intensity to the 157th (Highland Light Infantry) Brigade's assault at Sausage Ridge on 8 November.^[211] The success of these operations north of the Nahr Sukhereir opened the way on the Mediterranean coast for the main attacks the following day, on the Ottoman armies' front line positions.^[215]

Ottoman counterattack

Ottoman counterattack on 12 November 1917

While the infantry attack was in progress, the Australian Mounted Division advanced in the direction of Tel es Safi, to press the left flank of the Ottoman forces as strongly as possible.^[229] About 4,000 Australian and British mounted troops of 3rd and 4th Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades moved northwards in a conspicuous demonstration of aggression. The Ottoman force appeared at first, to have retired altogether, and the 9th Light Horse Regiment (3rd Light Horse Brigade) was able to ride through Barqusya, with one troop pressing on to occupy Tel es Safi. The 5th Mounted Brigade also found Balin unoccupied, and rapidly advanced northwards towards Tel es Safi and Kustineh. By 12:00 the Australian Mounted Division was spread over at least 6 miles (9.7 km) facing the north and east, when four divisions of the Ottoman Seventh Army (about 5,000 soldiers) began their counterattack.^[208][230] Ten minutes later the British Honourable Artillery Company horse artillery battery opened fire, but was hopelessly out shot, outnumbered, and out ranged by Ottoman guns of greater power and weight.^[231]

Hong Kong (Indian) mountain gun battery

The Ottoman infantry divisions were moving south from El Tineh 3 miles (4.8 km) east of Qastina from the Ottoman controlled branch line of the railway line. Here and further north along the railway, trains were arriving with huge numbers of Ottoman soldiers, deployed for the attack in three separate columns (of all arms). They were seen advancing towards Tel es Safi from the north and north-east. Not long afterwards, the 11th Light Horse Regiment (4th Light Horse Brigade) was forced to retire from Qastina, as Ottoman units occupied the place in strength.^[232]

The approach of the Eighth Ottoman Army's XX Corps (16th, 26th, 53rd, and 54th Divisions) was at first unknown to the 5th Mounted Brigade in Balin. But at about 13:00 they were attacked by about 5,000 Ottoman soldiers in two columns, one coming down the track from Junction Station to Tel el Safi, and the other arrived by train and marched south from El Tineh Station. The 5th Mounted Brigade, was pushed back out of Balin before they could be reinforced by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade which rode from Summil, followed by two batteries of the Australian Mounted Division. One light horse regiment which managed to occupy Berkusie, was forced to retire by a very strong Ottoman force supported by heavy artillery fire from several batteries. All available troops of the Australian Mounted Division were now engaged, but the Ottoman attack continued to be strongly pressed.^{[218][233][234]} The 4th Light Horse Brigade had been unable to support the 3rd Light Horse or the 5th Mounted Brigades, as they were being heavily attacked on the left of the 5th Mounted Brigade, while holding the line to the west towards Dayr Sunayd railway line. Ottoman units managed to advance to within 100 yards (91 m) of the 4th Light Horse Brigade's position, but were eventually stopped at the end of the day by machine-gun and rifle fire.^[235][236]

Hodgson (commander of the Australian Mounted Division) had ordered a slow withdrawal by 3rd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades to high ground on the line Bir Summil – Khurbet Jeladiyeh. The order had only just been given when another Ottoman train was seen moving south. It stopped west of Balin and a fresh force of Ottoman soldiers rapidly deployed to attack the left flank of the 5th Mounted Brigade. Fighting steadily and withdrawing skilfully, the 3rd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades reached the edge of Summil village, where the Ottoman attack was finally held. Two batteries of Australian Mounted Division had come into action on the high ground north-west of Summeil firing on the fresh Ottoman force moving over the open plain in full view of the gunners. Effective EEF artillery fire halted this attacking Ottoman advance, forcing them to fall back a little where they dug trenches. The attack ended at 18:00 in darkness.^[236][237] Chauvel's reliance on the steadiness of the Australian Mounted Division was "amply justified."^[238] The Yildirim Army Group commander had been forced to halt his Seventh Army's attack, and then to take away from it the 16th Division, plus one regiment.^[239] While in their eastern sector, the 3rd Cavalry Division (Seventh Army's III Corps) and 19th Division (Eighth Army) held a line in front of Bayt Jibrin.^[32][47] This force waited throughout the day, prepared to begin a flank attack, but the opportunity never eventuated.^{[208][231][240]}

Mughar Ridge

Counter-attack and capture of Junction Station 12–14 November 1917

A 20,000-strong Ottoman force was deployed to defend the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway along the Wadi al-Sarar and Al-Nabi Rubin. They held the prominent 100-foot (30 m) high ridge, which stretched north towards Zernukah and El Kubeibeh dominated the battlefield, which consisted of mainly bare and open cultivated land. This naturally strong ridge formed the backbone of the Ottoman Army's 20-mile (32 km) long defensive position defended by the Eighth Army's 3rd Division (XXII Corps) to the north, the 7th Division (Eighth Army Reserve) to the east, the 54th Division (XX Corps) near el Mesmiye, with the 53rd Division linking to the 26th Division (XX Corps) holding Tel es Safi.^[241][242] On the ridge, the villages of Qatra and Al-Maghar had been fortified to become two strong defensive positions, each with commanding views of the countryside. These villages were separated by the Wadi Jamus, which links the Wadi al-Sarar with the Nahr Rubin.^{[221][222][243]}

New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade crossing old crusader bridge at Yibna

Allenby's plan for 13 November was to turn the right flank of the Ottoman line on the coast, despite aircraft and cavalry reconnaissances revealing the large Ottoman force, inland on his right flank facing the Australian Mounted Division. Indeed the division was ordered to make as big a demonstration of their activities, as possible, to focus Ottoman attention away from the coastal sector. Here Allenby planned for the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions to advance northwards to attempt to turn the Ottoman right flank, assisted by infantry attacks on the Ottoman right centre.^[229][244]

In the centre, the XXI Corps' 52nd (Lowland) and the 75th Divisions were to advance towards Junction Station between the Gaza road on the right, and the village of El Mughar on the left.^[224] These infantry attacks were held up by very strong Ottoman defences.^[215][245] At Mesmiye the Ottoman Army was strongly deployed on high ground in and near the village, and well-sited machine-guns swept all approaches. However, infantry in the 75th Division made steady slow progress, eventually forcing the main body of the Ottoman rear guard, to fall back to a slight ridge 1 mile (1.6 km) to the north-east. Towards dusk the final stage of the infantry assault was supported by two troops of 11th Light Horse Regiment (4th Light Horse Brigade), who galloped into action on the infantry's right flank and gave valuable fire support. An infantry frontal attack covered by machine-gun fire drove the Ottoman defenders off the ridge, enabling Mesmiye esh Sherqiye to be occupied soon after. Subsequently they halted in darkness not far from Junction Station.^{[246][247][248]}

Capture of Junction Station

On their right flank the Australian Mounted Division's 3rd and 4th Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades, reinforced by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade (Anzac Mounted Division), the 7th Mounted Brigade (Yeomanry Mounted Division) and two cars of the 12th Light Armoured Motor Battery, attacked in line advancing northwards towards Junction Station.^{[249][Note 15]} The 4th Light Horse Brigade covering the right flank of the 75th Division, entered Qazaza at 12:00, when the 7th Mounted Brigade on their left, was only .5 miles (0.80 km) from Junction Station.^[249] By 16:00 the 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered to push forward to El Tineh as the infantry advance on their left was progressing. It was occupied the following morning.^[250]

Sketch map of Yeomanry charge at El Mughar

On the left flank of the XXI Corps, the remainder of the Desert Mounted Corps; the Anzac and the Yeomanry Mounted Divisions covered the infantry attack, with Yibna as their first objective and Aqir their second.^[214] As soon as Junction Station was captured they were to swing north to occupy Ramla and Lod and reconnoitre towards Jaffa.^[215] After capturing Yibna, the 8th Mounted Brigade (Yeomanry Mounted Division) continued their advance northwards, to El Kubeibeh and Zernukah.^[251] However, the 22nd Mounted Brigade was held up by Ottoman units defending Aqir, while the 6th Mounted Brigade (with the Imperial Camel Brigade covering their northern flank) was directed to attack el Mughar.^[252][253]

The 52nd (Lowland) Division had been halted at about 11:30 by heavy shrapnel and machine-gun fire forcing them to the shelter of the Wadi Jamus about 600 yards (550 m) from their objective. Every attempt to leave the wadi was stopped by very heavy fire from well placed Ottoman machine-guns.^[254] At about 14:30 it was agreed between the GOC 52nd (Lowland) Division and the GOC Yeomanry Mounted Division that the 6th Mounted Brigade should attack the El Mughar ridge in combination with a renewed infantry assault on Qatra and El Mughar. Half an hour later two mounted regiments, the Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry and the Queen's Own Dorset Yeomanry (6th Mounted Brigade), already deployed in the Wadi Jamus, advanced in column of squadrons extended to four paces across 3,000 yards (2.7 km), at first trotting then galloping up and onto the crest of the ridge.^[245] The horses were completely exhausted and could not continue the pursuit of the escaping Ottoman units down the far side.^[255] However, the Ottoman defenders continued to hold El Mughar village until two squadrons of the Berkshire Yeomanry regiment (6th Mounted Brigade) fighting dismounted, with two battalions of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, renewed the attack.^[245][256] Fighting in the village continued until 17:00 when both of the crucial fortified villages of Qatra and El Mughar were captured.^[224][257]

Ayun Kara

Ayun Kara attacks

The advance was taken over by the Yeomanry Mounted Division which crossed the railway north of Junction Station, and the Anzac Mounted Division which pressed the retreating Ottoman Army northwards near the coast.^[260] The Anzac Mounted Division had been ordered capture Ramleh and Ludd, and cut the only road linking Jaffa to Jerusalem.^[264][138] During the morning Meldrum's New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade crossed the Wadi es Surar/Nahr Rubin close to the sand dunes with 1st Light Horse Brigade on its right, and by 09:00 had occupied El Kubeibeh. They pushed on towards the Wadi Hunayn where Ottoman rearguards were encountered in the orange groves and on the hills between El Kubeibeh and the sand dunes.^[265] About noon the 1st Light Horse Brigade drove an Ottoman rearguard from a ridge facing Yibna and occupied the village of Rehovot also known as Deiran.^[266][267] At the same time the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (commanded by Brigadier General William Meldrum) ran into a determined and well entrenched Ottoman rearguard near Ayun Kara, which they attacked. Fierce close quarter fighting against the Ottoman 3rd Infantry Division continued during the afternoon.^[246][268] Although severely threatened, the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade eventually prevailed and they occupied Jaffa two days later, unopposed.^[269] The official New Zealand historian concluded in 1922 that the engagement at Ayun Kara demonstrated the ability of the New Zealand mounted rifles regiments to rapidly attack and reinforce successive positions on horseback. During this intense engagement, the attacking power of the mounted rifle arm, against a strongly entrenched infantry position was comprehensively proven.^[270]

Abu Shusheh, Ludd and Ramleh

Ramleh after occupation by the EEF

At midnight on 14 November von Falkenhayn ordered a general withdrawal and the Ottoman Seventh Army, which retreated back into the Judean Hills towards Jerusalem, while the Eighth Army was ordered to retreat to the north of Jaffa across the Nahr el Auja about 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Jaffa.^[271][272] These Ottoman armies had suffered heavily, and lost between 40 and 60 miles (64 and 97 km) of Ottoman territory north of the old Gaza–Beersheba line. These two Ottoman armies left behind 10,000 prisoners of war and 100 guns.^[273][274]

The day after the action at Ayun Kara, the 75th Division and the Australian Mounted Division advanced towards Latron where the Jaffa to Jerusalem road enters the Judean Hills, while the Anzac Mounted Division occupied Ramleh and Ludd about 5 miles (8.0 km) north of Junction Station. An Ottoman rearguard above Abu Shusheh blocked the Vale of Ajalon on the right flank of the advance towards Ramleh. The Yeomanry Mounted Division reached the Jerusalem road, after the 6th Mounted Brigade made a cavalry charge, which overwhelmed an Ottoman rearguard position. This charge has been described as even more difficult than that at Mughar Ridge, owing to the rocky nature of the ground over which the horsemen rode.^[275][276]

Jaffa and Latron

New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade accept surrender of Jaffa at town hall

On 16 November Latron was captured and the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade (Anzac Mounted Division) occupied Jaffa, without opposition.^[260][281] They administered the city until representatives of the director of Occupied Enemy Territory arrived to take over the job.^[282]