Orson Welles
Welles in 1937, photographed by Carl Van Vechten
Born	George Orson Welles (1915-05-06)May 6, 1915 Kenosha, Wisconsin, U.S.
Died	October 10, 1985(1985-10-10) (aged 70) Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Resting place	Ronda, Andalusia, Spain
Occupations	Actor director screenwriter producer
Years active	1931–1985
Notable work	Citizen Kane The Third Man The Magnificent Ambersons The Lady From Shanghai Touch of Evil Chimes at Midnight F for Fake
Political party	Democratic
Spouses	Virginia Nicolson (married 1934–1940) Rita Hayworth (married 1943–1947) Paola Mori (married 1955–1985)
Partners	Dolores del Río (1940–1943) Oja Kodar (1966–1985)
Children	3, including Beatrice
Signature

George Orson Welles (May 6, 1915 – October 10, 1985) was an American film director, actor, writer, and producer who is remembered for his innovative work in film, radio, and theatre. He is considered to be among the greatest and most influential filmmakers of all time.^[1]

At age 21, Welles was directing high-profile stage productions for the Federal Theatre Project in New York City—starting with a celebrated 1936 adaptation of Macbeth with an African-American cast, and ending with the controversial labor opera The Cradle Will Rock in 1937. He and John Houseman then founded the Mercury Theatre, an independent repertory theatre company that presented a series of productions on Broadway through 1941, including a modern, politically charged Caesar (1937). In 1938, his radio anthology series The Mercury Theatre on the Air gave Welles the platform to find international fame as the director and narrator of a radio adaptation of H. G. Wells's novel The War of the Worlds, which caused some listeners to believe that a Martian invasion was in fact occurring. Although reports of panic were mostly false and overstated,^[2] they rocketed 23-year-old Welles to notoriety.

His first film was Citizen Kane (1941), which he co-wrote, produced, directed and starred in as the title character, Charles Foster Kane. It has been consistently ranked as one of the greatest films ever made. He directed twelve other features, the most acclaimed of which include The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), The Stranger (1946), The Lady from Shanghai (1947), Touch of Evil (1958), The Trial (1962), Chimes at Midnight (1966) and F for Fake (1973).^[3][4] Welles also starred in films such as Jane Eyre (1943), The Third Man (1949), and A Man for All Seasons (1966).

His distinctive directorial style featured layered and nonlinear narrative forms, dramatic lighting, unusual camera angles, sound techniques borrowed from radio, deep focus shots and long takes. He has been praised as "the ultimate auteur".^[5]: 6 Welles was an outsider to the studio system and struggled for creative control on his projects early on with the major film studios in Hollywood and later in life with a variety of independent financiers across Europe, where he spent most of his career. Many of his films were either heavily edited or remained unreleased.

Welles received an Academy Award and three Grammy Awards among other numerous honors such as Academy Honorary Award in 1970, the Golden Lion in 1970, the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1975, and the British Film Institute Fellowship in 1983. In 2002, he was voted the greatest film director of all time in two British Film Institute polls among directors and critics.^[6][7] In 2018, he was included in the list of the 50 greatest Hollywood actors of all time by The Daily Telegraph.^[8] Welles had three marriages, including one with Rita Hayworth, and three children.

Early life

Orson Welles at age three (1918)

Welles's birthplace in Kenosha, Wisconsin (2013)

Welles with his mother, Beatrice Ives Welles

George Orson Welles was born May 6, 1915, in Kenosha, Wisconsin, a son of Richard Head Welles (1872–1930)^{[9]: 26 [10][lower-alpha 1]} and Beatrice Ives Welles (née Beatrice Lucy Ives; 1883–1924).^{[10][11]: 9 [lower-alpha 2]} He was named after one of his great-grandfathers, influential Kenosha attorney Orson S. Head, and his brother George Head.^[9]: 37 An alternative story of the source of his first and middle names was told by George Ade, who met Welles's parents on a West Indies cruise toward the end of 1914. Ade was traveling with a friend, Orson Wells (no relation), and the two of them sat at the same table as Mr. and Mrs. Richard Welles. Mrs. Welles was pregnant at the time, and when they said goodbye, she told them that she had enjoyed their company so much that if the child were a boy, she intended to name him after them: George Orson.^[13]

Despite his family's affluence, Welles encountered hardship in childhood. His parents separated and moved approximately 55 miles south to Chicago in 1919. His father, who made a fortune as the inventor of a popular bicycle lamp,^[14] became an alcoholic and stopped working. Welles's mother was a pianist who studied with Leopold Godowsky.^[15] She played during lectures by Dudley Crafts Watson at the Art Institute of Chicago to support her son and herself. The older Welles boy, "Dickie", was institutionalized at an early age because he had learning difficulties. Beatrice died of hepatitis in a Chicago hospital on May 10, 1924, just after Welles's ninth birthday.^{[16]: 3–5 [17]: 326} The Gordon String Quartet, a predecessor to the Berkshire String Quartet, which had made its first appearance at her home in 1921, played at Beatrice's funeral.^[18][19]

After his mother's death, Welles ceased pursuing music. It was decided that he would spend the summer with the Watson family at a private art colony established by Lydia Avery Coonley Ward in the village of Wyoming in the Finger Lakes Region of New York.^[20]: 8 There, he played and became friends with the children of the Aga Khan, including the 12-year-old Prince Aly Khan.^{[lower-alpha 3]} Then, in what Welles later described as "a hectic period" in his life, he lived in a Chicago apartment with both his father and Maurice Bernstein, a Chicago physician who had been a close friend of both his parents. Welles briefly attended public school^[21]: 133 before his alcoholic father left business altogether and took him along on his travels to Jamaica and the Far East. When they returned, they settled in a hotel in Grand Detour, Illinois, that was owned by his father. When the hotel burned down, Welles and his father took to the road again.^[20]: 9

"During the three years that Orson lived with his father, some observers wondered who took care of whom," wrote biographer Frank Brady.^[20]: 9

"In some ways, he was never really a young boy, you know," said Roger Hill, who became Welles's teacher and lifelong friend.^[22]: 24

Welles in 1926: "Cartoonist, Actor, Poet and only 10"

Welles briefly attended public school in Madison, Wisconsin, enrolled in the fourth grade.^[20]: 9 On September 15, 1926, he entered the Todd Seminary for Boys,^[21]: 3 an expensive independent school in Woodstock, Illinois, that his older brother, Richard Ives Welles, had attended ten years before until he was expelled for misbehavior.^[9]: 48 At Todd School, Welles came under the influence of Roger Hill, a teacher who was later Todd's headmaster. Hill provided Welles with an ad hoc educational environment that proved invaluable to his creative experience, allowing Welles to concentrate on subjects that interested him. Welles performed and staged theatrical experiments and productions there.^[23]

Welles (fourth from left) with classmates at the Todd School for Boys (1931)

"Todd provided Welles with many valuable experiences," wrote critic Richard France. "He was able to explore and experiment in an atmosphere of acceptance and encouragement. In addition to a theatre, the school's own radio station was at his disposal."^[24]: 27 Welles's first radio experience was on the Todd station, where he performed an adaptation of Sherlock Holmes that was written by him.^[16]: 7

On December 28, 1930, when Welles was 15, his father died of heart and kidney failure at the age of 58, alone in a hotel in Chicago. Shortly before this, Welles had announced to his father that he would stop seeing him, believing it would prompt his father to refrain from drinking. As a result, Orson felt guilty because he believed his father had drunk himself to death because of him.^[25] His father's will left it to Orson to name his guardian. When Roger Hill declined, Welles chose Maurice Bernstein.^{[26]: 71–72}

Following graduation from Todd in May 1931,^[21]: 3 Welles was awarded a scholarship to Harvard College, while his mentor Roger Hill advocated he attend Cornell College in Iowa.^[27] Rather than enrolling, he chose travel. He studied for a few weeks at the Art Institute of Chicago^[28]: 117 with Boris Anisfeld, who encouraged him to pursue painting.^[20]: 18

Welles occasionally returned to Woodstock, the place he eventually named when he was asked in a 1960 interview, "Where is home?" Welles replied, "I suppose it's Woodstock, Illinois, if it's anywhere. I went to school there for four years. If I try to think of a home, it's that."^[29]

Early career (1931–1935)

After graduating, 16-year-old Welles embarked on a painting and sketching tour of Ireland and the Aran Islands, traveling by donkey cart (1931).

After his father's death, Welles traveled to Europe using a small portion of his inheritance. Welles said that while on a walking and painting trip through Ireland, he strode into the Gate Theatre in Dublin and claimed he was a Broadway star. The manager of the Gate, Hilton Edwards, later said he had not believed him but was impressed by his brashness and an impassioned audition he gave.^[30]: 134 Welles made his stage debut at the Gate Theatre on October 13, 1931, appearing in Ashley Dukes's adaptation of Jud Süß as Duke Karl Alexander of Württemberg. He performed small supporting roles in subsequent Gate productions, and he produced and designed productions of his own in Dublin. In March 1932, Welles performed in W. Somerset Maugham's The Circle at Dublin's Abbey Theatre and traveled to London to find additional work in the theatre. Unable to obtain a work permit, he returned to the U.S.^{[17]: 327–330}

Welles found his fame ephemeral and turned to a writing project at Todd School that became immensely successful, first entitled Everybody's Shakespeare and subsequently, The Mercury Shakespeare. Welles traveled to North Africa while working on thousands of illustrations for the Everybody's Shakespeare series of educational books, a series that remained in print for decades.^[31]

In 1933, Roger and Hortense Hill invited Welles to a party in Chicago, where Welles met Thornton Wilder. Wilder arranged for Welles to meet Alexander Woollcott in New York in order that he be introduced to Katharine Cornell, who was assembling a repertory theatre company. Cornell's husband, director Guthrie McClintic, immediately put Welles under contract and cast him in three plays.^{[20]: 46–49} Romeo and Juliet, The Barretts of Wimpole Street and Candida toured in repertory for 36 weeks beginning in November 1933, with the first of more than 200 performances taking place in Buffalo, New York.^{[17]: 330–331}

In 1934, Welles got his first job on radio—with The American School of the Air—through actor-director Paul Stewart, who introduced him to director Knowles Entrikin.^[17]: 331 That summer, Welles staged a drama festival with the Todd School at the Opera House in Woodstock, Illinois, inviting Micheál Mac Liammóir and Hilton Edwards from Dublin's Gate Theatre to appear along with New York stage luminaries in productions including Trilby, Hamlet, The Drunkard and Tsar Paul. At the old firehouse in Woodstock, he also shot his first film, an eight-minute short titled, The Hearts of Age.^{[17]: 330–331}

On November 14, 1934, Welles married Chicago socialite and actress Virginia Nicolson^[17]: 332 (often misspelled "Nicholson")^[32] in a civil ceremony in New York. To appease the Nicolsons, who were furious at the couple's elopement, a formal ceremony took place December 23, 1934, at the New Jersey mansion of the bride's godmother. Welles wore a cutaway borrowed from his friend George Macready.^[26]: 182

Playbill for Archibald MacLeish's Panic (March 14–15, 1935), Welles's first starring role on the U.S. stage

A revised production of Katharine Cornell's Romeo and Juliet opened December 20, 1934, at the Martin Beck Theatre in New York.^{[17]: 331–332 [33]} The Broadway production brought the 19-year-old Welles (now playing Tybalt) to the notice of John Houseman, a theatrical producer who was casting the lead role in the debut production of one of Archibald MacLeish's verse plays, Panic.^{[34]: 144–158} On March 22, 1935, Welles made his debut on the CBS Radio series The March of Time, performing a scene from Panic for a news report on the stage production.^{[20]: 70–71}

By 1935, Welles was supplementing his earnings in the theatre as a radio actor in Manhattan, working with many actors who later formed the core of his Mercury Theatre on programs including America's Hour, Cavalcade of America, Columbia Workshop and The March of Time.^{[17]: 331–332} "Within a year of his debut Welles could claim membership in that elite band of radio actors who commanded salaries second only to the highest paid movie stars," wrote critic Richard France.^[24]: 172

Theatre (1936–1938)

Federal Theatre Project

• 
  Macbeth (1936)
• 
  Macbeth opening night at the Lafayette Theatre (April 14, 1936)
• 
  Horse Eats Hat (1936)
• 
  Faustus (1937)
• 
  The Cradle Will Rock (1937)

Part of the Works Progress Administration, the Federal Theatre Project (1935–39) was a New Deal program to fund theatre and other live artistic performances and entertainment programs in the United States during the Great Depression. It was created as a relief measure to employ artists, writers, directors and theatre workers. Under national director Hallie Flanagan it was shaped into a truly national theatre that created relevant art, encouraged experimentation and innovation, and made it possible for millions of Americans to see live theatre for the first time.^[35]

Macbeth (Jack Carter, left) with the Murderers in Macbeth (1936)

From left, Houseman, Edwin Denby and Welles at a rehearsal of Horse Eats Hat (1936)

John Houseman, director of the Negro Theatre Unit in New York, invited Welles to join the Federal Theatre Project in 1935. Far from unemployed—"I was so employed I forgot how to sleep"—Welles put a large share of his $1,500-a-week radio earnings into his stage productions, bypassing administrative red tape and mounting the projects more quickly and professionally. "Roosevelt once said that I was the only operator in history who ever illegally siphoned money into a Washington project," Welles said.^{[17]: 11–13}

The Federal Theatre Project was the ideal environment in which Welles could develop his art. Its purpose was employment, so he was able to hire any number of artists, craftsmen and technicians, and he filled the stage with performers.^[36]: 3 The company for the first production, an adaptation of William Shakespeare's Macbeth with an entirely African-American cast, numbered 150.^[37] The production became known as the Voodoo Macbeth because Welles changed the setting to a mythical island suggesting the Haitian court of King Henri Christophe,^{[38]: 179–180} with Haitian vodou fulfilling the role of Scottish witchcraft.^[39]: 86 The play opened April 14, 1936, at the Lafayette Theatre in Harlem and was received rapturously. At 20, Welles was hailed as a prodigy.^[40] The production then made a 4,000-mile national tour^{[17]: 333 [41]} that included two weeks at the Texas Centennial Exposition in Dallas.^[42]

Next mounted was the farce Horse Eats Hat, an adaptation by Welles and Edwin Denby of The Italian Straw Hat, an 1851 five-act farce by Eugène Marin Labiche and Marc-Michel.^[22]: 114 The play was presented September 26 – December 5, 1936, at Maxine Elliott's Theatre, New York,^[17]: 334 and featured Joseph Cotten in his first starring role.^[43]: 34 It was followed by an adaptation of Dr. Faustus that used light as a prime unifying scenic element in a nearly black stage, presented January 8 – May 9, 1937, at Maxine Elliott's Theatre.^[17]: 335

Outside the scope of the Federal Theatre Project,^[24]: 100 American composer Aaron Copland chose Welles to direct The Second Hurricane (1937), an operetta with a libretto by Edwin Denby. Presented at the Henry Street Settlement Music School in New York for the benefit of high school students, the production opened April 21, 1937, and ran its scheduled three performances.^[17]: 337

In 1937, Welles rehearsed Marc Blitzstein's political operetta, The Cradle Will Rock.^[44] It was originally scheduled to open June 16, 1937, in its first public preview. Because of severe federal cutbacks in the Works Progress projects, the show's premiere at the Maxine Elliott Theatre was canceled. The theater was locked and guarded to prevent any government-purchased materials from being used for a commercial production of the work. In a last-minute move, Welles announced to waiting ticket-holders that the show was being transferred to the Venice, 20 blocks away. Some cast, and some crew and audience, walked the distance on foot. The union musicians refused to perform in a commercial theater for lower non-union government wages. The actors' union stated that the production belonged to the Federal Theatre Project and could not be performed outside that context without permission. Lacking the participation of the union members, The Cradle Will Rock began with Blitzstein introducing the show and playing the piano accompaniment on stage with some cast members performing from the audience. This impromptu performance was well received by its audience.

Mercury Theatre

At age 22 Welles was Broadway's youngest impresario – producing, directing and starring in an adaptation of Julius Caesar that broke all performance records for the play (1938).

Welles as the octogenarian Captain Shotover in the Mercury Theatre production of Heartbreak House, on the cover of Time (May 9, 1938)

Main article: Mercury Theatre

Breaking with the Federal Theatre Project in 1937, Welles and Houseman founded their own repertory company, which they called the Mercury Theatre. The name was inspired by the title of the iconoclastic magazine The American Mercury.^{[20]: 119–120} Welles was executive producer, and the original company included such actors as Joseph Cotten, George Coulouris, Geraldine Fitzgerald, Arlene Francis, Martin Gabel, John Hoyt, Norman Lloyd, Vincent Price, Stefan Schnabel and Hiram Sherman.

"I think he was the greatest directorial talent we've ever had in the [American] theater", Lloyd said of Welles in a 2014 interview. "When you saw a Welles production, you saw the text had been affected, the staging was remarkable, the sets were unusual, music, sound, lighting, a totality of everything. We had not had such a man in our theater. He was the first and remains the greatest."^[45]

The Mercury Theatre opened November 11, 1937, with Caesar, Welles's modern-dress adaptation of Shakespeare's tragedy Julius Caesar—streamlined into an anti-fascist tour de force that Joseph Cotten later described as "so vigorous, so contemporary that it set Broadway on its ear."^[43]: 108 The set was completely open with no curtain, and the brick stage wall was painted dark red. Scene changes were achieved by lighting alone.^[46]: 165 On the stage was a series of risers; squares were cut into one at intervals and lights were set beneath it, pointing straight up to evoke the "cathedral of light" at the Nuremberg Rallies. "He staged it like a political melodrama that happened the night before," said Lloyd.^[45]

Beginning January 1, 1938, Caesar was performed in repertory with The Shoemaker's Holiday; both productions moved to the larger National Theatre. They were followed by Heartbreak House (April 29, 1938) and Danton's Death (November 5, 1938).^[36]: 344 As well as being presented in a pared-down oratorio version at the Mercury Theatre on Sunday nights in December 1937, The Cradle Will Rock was at the Windsor Theatre for 13 weeks (January 4 – April 2, 1938).^[17]: 340 Such was the success of the Mercury Theatre that Welles appeared on the cover of Time magazine, in full makeup as Captain Shotover in Heartbreak House, in the issue dated May 9, 1938—three days after his 23rd birthday.^[47]

On April 6, 1938, during a production of Caesar, Orson Welles accidentally stabbed Joseph Holland with a steel knife during Act 3 Scene 1 where Brutus betrays Caesar, a real knife being used for the way it dramatically caught light during the scene. Holland took a month to recover from the injury, and this incident permanently damaged relations between the two.^[48]

Radio (1936–1940)

The Columbia Workshop broadcast of Archibald MacLeish's radio play The Fall of the City (April 11, 1937) made Welles an overnight star.

Simultaneously with his work in the theatre, Welles worked extensively in radio as an actor, writer, director and producer, often without credit.^[36]: 77 Between 1935 and 1937 he was earning as much as $2,000 a week, shuttling between radio studios at such a pace that he would arrive barely in time for a quick scan of his lines before he was on the air. While he was directing the Voodoo Macbeth Welles was dashing between Harlem and midtown Manhattan three times a day to meet his radio commitments.^[24]: 172

In addition to continuing as a repertory player on The March of Time, in the fall of 1936 Welles adapted and performed Hamlet in an early two-part episode of CBS Radio's Columbia Workshop. His performance as the announcer in the series' April 1937 presentation of Archibald MacLeish's verse drama The Fall of the City was an important development in his radio career^[36]: 78 and made the 21-year-old Welles an overnight star.^[49]: 46

In July 1937, the Mutual Network gave Welles a seven-week series to adapt Les Misérables. It was his first job as a writer-director for radio,^[17]: 338 the debut of the Mercury Theatre, and one of Welles's earliest and finest achievements.^[50]: 160 He invented the use of narration in radio.^[17]: 88

"By making himself the center of the storytelling process, Welles fostered the impression of self-adulation that was to haunt his career to his dying day", wrote critic Andrew Sarris. "For the most part, however, Welles was singularly generous to the other members of his cast and inspired loyalty from them above and beyond the call of professionalism."^[49]: 8

That September, Mutual chose Welles to play Lamont Cranston, also known as The Shadow. He performed the role anonymously through mid-September 1938.^{[36]: 83 [51]}

The Mercury Theatre on the Air

Main articles: The Mercury Theatre on the Air, The War of the Worlds (radio drama), and The Campbell Playhouse (radio series)

Welles at the press conference after "The War of the Worlds" broadcast (October 31, 1938)

After the theatrical successes of the Mercury Theatre, CBS Radio invited Orson Welles to create a summer show for 13 weeks. The series began July 11, 1938, initially titled First Person Singular, with the formula that Welles would play the lead in each show. Some months later the show was called The Mercury Theatre on the Air.^[49]: 12 The weekly hour-long show presented radio plays based on classic literary works, with original music composed and conducted by Bernard Herrmann.

The Mercury Theatre's radio adaptation of The War of the Worlds by H. G. Wells October 30, 1938, brought Welles instant fame. The combination of the news bulletin form of the performance with the between-breaks dial spinning habits of listeners was later reported to have created widespread confusion among listeners who failed to hear the introduction, although the extent of this confusion has come into question.^{[2][52][53][54]} Panic was reportedly spread among listeners who believed the fictional news reports of a Martian invasion.^[55] The myth of the result created by the combination was reported as fact around the world and disparagingly mentioned by Adolf Hitler in a public speech.^[56]

The Mercury Theatre on the Air became The Campbell Playhouse in December 1938.

Welles's growing fame drew Hollywood offers, lures that the independent-minded Welles resisted at first. The Mercury Theatre on the Air, which had been a sustaining show (without sponsorship) was picked up by Campbell Soup and renamed The Campbell Playhouse.^[57] The Mercury Theatre on the Air made its last broadcast on December 4, 1938, and The Campbell Playhouse began five days later.

Welles began commuting from California to New York for the two Sunday broadcasts of The Campbell Playhouse after signing a film contract with RKO Pictures in August 1939. In November 1939, production of the show moved from New York to Los Angeles.^[17]: 353

After 20 shows, Campbell began to exercise more creative control and had complete control over story selection. As his contract with Campbell came to an end, Welles chose not to sign on for another season. After the broadcast of March 31, 1940, Welles and Campbell parted amicably.^{[20]: 221–226}

Hollywood (1939–1948)

• 
  Citizen Kane (1941)
• 
  The Magnificent Ambersons (1942)
• 
  Journey into Fear (1943)
• 
  The Stranger (1946)
• 
  The Lady from Shanghai (1947)
• 
  Macbeth (1948)

RKO Radio Pictures president George Schaefer eventually offered Welles what generally is considered the greatest contract offered to a filmmaker, much less to one who was untried. Engaging him to write, produce, direct and perform in two motion pictures, the contract subordinated the studio's financial interests to Welles's creative control, and broke all precedent by granting Welles the right of final cut.^{[58]: 1–2} After signing a summary agreement with RKO on July 22, Welles signed a full-length 63-page contract August 21, 1939.^[17]: 353 The agreement was bitterly resented by the Hollywood studios and persistently mocked in the trade press.^[58]: 2

Citizen Kane

Welles in Citizen Kane (1941)

Canada Lee as Bigger Thomas in Native Son (1941)

Main article: Citizen Kane

RKO rejected Welles's first two movie proposals, but agreed on the third offer—Citizen Kane. Welles co-wrote, produced and directed the film, and he performed the lead role.^[59] Welles conceived the project with screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz, who was writing radio plays for The Campbell Playhouse.^[58]: 16 Mankiewicz based the original outline of the film script on the life of William Randolph Hearst, whom he knew socially and came to hate after being exiled from Hearst's circle.^[60]: 231

After agreeing on the storyline and character, Welles supplied Mankiewicz with 300 pages of notes and put him under contract to write the first draft screenplay under the supervision of John Houseman. Welles wrote his own draft,^[17]: 54 then drastically condensed and rearranged both versions and added scenes of his own. The industry accused Welles of underplaying Mankiewicz's contribution to the script, but Welles countered the attacks by saying, "At the end, naturally, I was the one making the picture, after all—who had to make the decisions. I used what I wanted of Mank's and, rightly or wrongly, kept what I liked of my own."^[17]: 54

Welles's project attracted some of Hollywood's best technicians, including cinematographer Gregg Toland.^[59] For the cast, Welles primarily used actors from his Mercury Theatre. Filming Citizen Kane took ten weeks.^[59] Welles called Toland "the greatest gift any director—young or old—could ever, ever have. And he never tried to impress on us that he was performing miracles. He just went ahead and performed them. I was calling on him to do things only a beginner could be ignorant enough to think anybody could ever do, and there he was, doing them."^[61]

The film was scored by Bernard Herrmann, who had worked with Welles in radio. Welles said he worked with Hermann on the score "very intimately."^[62]

Hearst's newspapers barred all reference to Citizen Kane and exerted enormous pressure on the Hollywood film community to force RKO to shelve the film.^[58]: 111 RKO chief George Schaefer received a cash offer from MGM's Louis B. Mayer and other major studio executives if he would destroy the negative and existing prints of the film.^[58]: 112

While waiting for Citizen Kane to be released, Welles produced and directed the original Broadway production of Native Son, a drama written by Paul Green and Richard Wright based on Wright's novel. Starring Canada Lee, the show ran March 24 – June 28, 1941, at the St. James Theatre. The Mercury Production was the last time Welles and Houseman worked together.^[36]: 12

Citizen Kane was given a limited release and the film received overwhelming critical praise. It was voted the best picture of 1941 by the National Board of Review and the New York Film Critics Circle. The film garnered nine Academy Award nominations but won only for Best Original Screenplay, shared by Mankiewicz and Welles. Variety reported that block voting by screen extras deprived Citizen Kane of Oscars for Best Picture and Best Actor (Welles), and similar prejudices were likely to have been responsible for the film receiving no technical awards.^[58]: 117

The delay in the film's release and uneven distribution contributed to mediocre results at the box office. After it ran its course theatrically, Citizen Kane was retired to the vault in 1942. In postwar France, however, the film's reputation grew after it was seen for the first time in 1946.^{[58]: 117–118} In the United States, it began to be re-evaluated after it began to appear on television in 1956. That year it was also re-released theatrically,^[58]: 119 and film critic Andrew Sarris described it as "the great American film" and "the work that influenced the cinema more profoundly than any American film since The Birth of a Nation."^[63] Citizen Kane is now widely hailed as one of the greatest films ever made.^[64]

The Magnificent Ambersons

Welles at work on The Magnificent Ambersons (1942)

Main article: The Magnificent Ambersons (film)

Welles's second film for RKO was The Magnificent Ambersons, adapted by Welles from the Pulitzer Prize-winning novel by Booth Tarkington. Toland was not available, so Stanley Cortez was named cinematographer. The meticulous Cortez worked slowly and the film lagged behind schedule and over budget. Prior to production, Welles's contract was renegotiated, revoking his right to control the final cut.^[65] The Magnificent Ambersons was in production October 28, 1941 – January 22, 1942.^[66] Much of the cast of Kane returned, including Joseph Cotten, Agnes Moorehead, and Ray Collins. It also features Anne Baxter as Lucy Morgan, Dolores Costello as Isabel Anderson Minafer, Tim Holt as George Amberson Minafer and Richard Bennett as Major Amberson. RKO cut more than forty minutes of footage and added a happy ending, against Welles's wishes. Bernard Herrmann wrote some of the score but demanded his name be removed from the credits after the film was edited. The film that survives is still considered a classic. Molly Haskell writes: "Orson Welles so deftly manages rhythm and tone—a complex blend of irony and empathy—and the intertwining of aural and visual effects that, even as its time rolls relentlessly on and bitter memories accumulate, we constantly feel the exhilaration of virtuoso storytelling. Though less flashy than Citizen Kane, Welles's astonishing debut of the year before, Ambersons cuts deeper, and without the magnetizing hulk of Welles at its center, it's more genuinely polyphonic."^[67] François Truffaut asked, "if Flaubert reread Quixote every year, why can't we see Ambersons whenever possible?"^[68]

As an inside joke, Welles included a shot of a newspaper called the Indianapolis Daily Inquirer with a column titled "Stage Views" by Jed Leland. The Inquirer was one of Kane's papers, and Jed Leland (Joseph Cotten) was its theater critic.

Throughout the shooting of the film Welles was also producing a weekly half-hour radio series, The Orson Welles Show. Many of the Ambersons cast participated in the CBS Radio series, which ran from September 15, 1941, to February 2, 1942.^[69]: 525

Peter Bogdanovich recalled watching the film on television with Welles, who had tears in his eyes. Bogdanovich "asked Orson about that evening. I said I supposed it had been painful for him to watch the movie in its butchered form. 'No,' he said. It's wasn't that—not that at all. That just makes me angry. Don't you see? It was because it's the past—it's over...'"^[70] Nostalgia is a theme of many of Welles's films, including Ambersons.

War work

Goodwill ambassador

Delia Garcés and Welles at an Argentine Film Critics Association awards reception for Citizen Kane (April 1942)

In late November 1941, Welles was appointed as a goodwill ambassador to Latin America by Nelson Rockefeller, U.S. Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs and a principal stockholder in RKO Radio Pictures.^[72]: 244 The mission of the OCIAA was cultural diplomacy, promoting hemispheric solidarity and countering the growing influence of the Axis powers in Latin America.^{[72]: 10–11} John Hay Whitney, head of the agency's Motion Picture Division, was asked by the Brazilian government to produce a documentary of the annual Rio Carnival celebration taking place in early February 1942.^{[72]: 40–41} In a telegram on December 20, 1941, Whitney wrote Welles, "Personally believe you would make great contribution to hemisphere solidarity with this project."^[73]: 65

The OCIAA sponsored cultural tours to Latin America and appointed goodwill ambassadors including George Balanchine and the American Ballet, Bing Crosby, Aaron Copland, Walt Disney, John Ford and Rita Hayworth. Welles was thoroughly briefed in Washington, D.C., immediately before his departure for Brazil, and film scholar Catherine L. Benamou, a specialist in Latin American affairs, finds it "not unlikely" that he was among the goodwill ambassadors who were asked to gather intelligence for the U.S. government in addition to their cultural duties. She concludes that Welles's acceptance of Whitney's request was "a logical and patently patriotic choice".^{[72]: 245–247}

In addition to working on his ill-fated film project It's All True, Welles was responsible for radio programs, lectures, interviews and informal talks as part of his OCIAA-sponsored cultural mission, which was regarded as a success.^[74]: 192 He spoke on topics ranging from Shakespeare to visual art at gatherings of Brazil's elite, and his two intercontinental radio broadcasts in April 1942 were particularly intended to tell U.S. audiences that President Vargas was a partner with the Allies. Welles's ambassadorial mission was extended to permit his travel to other nations including Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru and Uruguay.^{[72]: 247–249, 328} Welles worked for more than half a year with no compensation.^{[72]: 41, 328 [74]: 189}

Welles's own expectations for the film were modest. "It's All True was not going to make any cinematic history, nor was it intended to," he later said. "It was intended to be a perfectly honorable execution of my job as a goodwill ambassador, bringing entertainment to the Northern Hemisphere that showed them something about the Southern one."^[22]: 253

It's All True

Main article: It's All True (film)

In July 1941, Welles conceived It's All True as an omnibus film mixing documentary and docufiction^{[22]: 221 [72]: 27} in a project that emphasized the dignity of labor and celebrated the cultural and ethnic diversity of North America. It was to have been his third film for RKO, following Citizen Kane (1941) and The Magnificent Ambersons (1942).^[75]: 109 Duke Ellington was put under contract to score a segment with the working title, "The Story of Jazz", drawn from Louis Armstrong's 1936 autobiography, Swing That Music.^{[76]: 232–233} Armstrong was cast to play himself in the brief dramatization of the history of jazz performance, from its roots to its place in American culture in the 1940s.^[75]: 109 "The Story of Jazz" was to go into production in December 1941.^{[72]: 119–120}

Mercury Productions purchased the stories for two other segments—"My Friend Bonito" and "The Captain's Chair"—from documentary filmmaker Robert J. Flaherty.^{[72]: 33, 326} Adapted by Norman Foster and John Fante, "My Friend Bonito" was the only segment of the original It's All True to go into production.^[75]: 109 Filming took place in Mexico September–December 1941, with Norman Foster directing under Welles's supervision.^[72]: 311

In December 1941, the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs asked Welles to make a film in Brazil that would showcase the Carnaval in Rio de Janeiro.^[73]: 65 With filming of "My Friend Bonito" about two-thirds complete, Welles decided he could shift the geography of It's All True and incorporate Flaherty's story into an omnibus film about Latin America—supporting the Roosevelt administration's Good Neighbor policy, which Welles strongly advocated.^{[72]: 41, 246} In this revised concept, "The Story of Jazz" was replaced by the story of samba, a musical form with a comparable history and one that came to fascinate Welles. He also decided to do a ripped-from-the-headlines episode about the epic voyage of four poor Brazilian fishermen, the jangadeiros, who had become national heroes. Welles later said this was the most valuable story.^{[17]: 158–159 [36]: 15}

Required to film the Carnaval in Rio de Janeiro in early February 1942, Welles rushed to edit The Magnificent Ambersons and finish his acting scenes in Journey into Fear. He ended his lucrative CBS radio show^[74]: 189 February 2, flew to Washington, D.C., for a briefing, and then lashed together a rough cut of Ambersons in Miami with editor Robert Wise.^{[17]: 369–370} Welles recorded the film's narration the night before he left for South America: "I went to the projection room at about four in the morning, did the whole thing, and then got on the plane and off to Rio—and the end of civilization as we know it."^[17]: 115

Welles left for Brazil on February 4 and began filming in Rio on February 8, 1942.^{[17]: 369–370} At the time it did not seem that Welles's other film projects would be disrupted, but as film historian Catherine L. Benamou wrote, "the ambassadorial appointment would be the first in a series of turning points leading—in 'zigs' and 'zags,' rather than in a straight line—to Welles's loss of complete directorial control over both The Magnificent Ambersons and It's All True, the cancellation of his contract at RKO Radio Studio, the expulsion of his company Mercury Productions from the RKO lot, and, ultimately, the total suspension of It's All True.^[72]: 46

In 1942 RKO Pictures underwent major changes under new management. Nelson Rockefeller, the primary backer of the Brazil project, left its board of directors, and Welles's principal sponsor at RKO, studio president George Schaefer, resigned. RKO took control of Ambersons and edited the film into what the studio considered a commercial format. Welles's attempts to protect his version ultimately failed.^[66][77] In South America, Welles requested resources to finish It's All True. Given a limited amount of black-and-white film stock and a silent camera, he was able to finish shooting the episode about the jangadeiros, but RKO refused to support further production on the film.

"So I was fired from RKO," Welles later recalled. "And they made a great publicity point of the fact that I had gone to South America without a script and thrown all this money away. I never recovered from that attack."^[78]: 188 Later in 1942, when RKO Pictures began promoting its new corporate motto, "Showmanship In Place of Genius: A New Deal at RKO",^[73]: 29 Welles understood it as a reference to him.^[78]: 188

Radio (1942–1943)

Welles performs a card trick for Carl Sandburg before the War Bond drive broadcast I Pledge America (August 1942).

Welles and Col. Arthur I. Ennis, head of the public relations branch of the Army Air Forces, discuss plans for the CBS Radio series Ceiling Unlimited (October 1942).

Welles, Margaret O'Brien and Joan Fontaine in Jane Eyre (1943)

Welles leaves his Army physical after being judged unfit for military service (May 6, 1943).

"Hello, suckers!" Orson the Magnificent welcomes the audience to The Mercury Wonder Show (August 1943).

Welles returned to the United States August 22, 1942, after more than six months in South America.^[17]: 372 A week after his return^[79][80] he produced and emceed the first two hours of a seven-hour coast-to-coast War Bond drive broadcast titled I Pledge America. Airing August 29, 1942, on the Blue Network, the program was presented in cooperation with the United States Department of the Treasury, Western Union (which wired bond subscriptions free of charge) and the American Women's Voluntary Services. Featuring 21 dance bands and a score of stage and screen and radio stars, the broadcast raised more than $10 million—more than $146 million today^[81]—for the war effort.^{[82][83][84][85][86][87]}

On October 12, 1942, Cavalcade of America presented Welles's radio play, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, an entertaining and factual look at the legend of Christopher Columbus.

"It belongs to a period when hemispheric unity was a crucial matter and many programs were being devoted to the common heritage of the Americas," wrote broadcasting historian Erik Barnouw. "Many such programs were being translated into Spanish and Portuguese and broadcast to Latin America, to counteract many years of successful Axis propaganda to that area. The Axis, trying to stir Latin America against Anglo-America, had constantly emphasized the differences between the two. It became the job of American radio to emphasize their common experience and essential unity."^[88]: 3

Admiral of the Ocean Sea, also known as Columbus Day, begins with the words, "Hello Americans"—the title Welles would choose for his own series five weeks later.^[17]: 373

Hello Americans, a CBS Radio series broadcast November 15, 1942 – January 31, 1943, was produced, directed and hosted by Welles under the auspices of the Office of the Coordinator for Inter-American Affairs. The 30-minute weekly program promoted inter-American understanding and friendship, drawing upon the research amassed for the ill-fated film, It's All True.^[89] The series was produced concurrently with Welles's other CBS series, Ceiling Unlimited (November 9, 1942 – February 1, 1943), sponsored by the Lockheed-Vega Corporation. The program was conceived to glorify the aviation industry and dramatize its role in World War II. Welles's shows were regarded as significant contributions to the war effort.^[49]: 64

Throughout the war Welles worked on patriotic radio programs including Command Performance, G.I. Journal, Mail Call, Nazi Eyes on Canada, Stage Door Canteen and Treasury Star Parade.

The Mercury Wonder Show

Main article: The Mercury Wonder Show

In early 1943, the two concurrent radio series (Ceiling Unlimited, Hello Americans) that Orson Welles created for CBS to support the war effort had ended. Filming also had wrapped on the 1943 film adaptation of Jane Eyre and that fee, in addition to the income from his regular guest-star roles in radio, made it possible for Welles to fulfill a lifelong dream. He approached the War Assistance League of Southern California and proposed a show that evolved into a big-top spectacle, part circus and part magic show. He offered his services as magician and director,^[90]: 40 and invested some $40,000 of his own money in an extravaganza he co-produced with his friend Joseph Cotten: The Mercury Wonder Show for Service Men. Members of the U.S. armed forces were admitted free of charge, while the general public had to pay.^[91]: 26 The show entertained more than 1,000 service members each night, and proceeds went to the War Assistance League, a charity for military service personnel.^[92]

The development of the show coincided with the resolution of Welles's oft-changing draft status in May 1943, when he was finally declared 4-F—unfit for military service—for a variety of medical reasons. "I felt guilty about the war," Welles told biographer Barbara Leaming. "I was guilt-ridden about my civilian status."^[93]: 86 He had been publicly hounded about his patriotism since Citizen Kane, when the Hearst press began persistent inquiries about why Welles had not been drafted.^{[73]: 66–67 [94][95]}

The Mercury Wonder Show ran August 3 – September 9, 1943, in an 80-by-120-foot tent^[92] located at 900 Cahuenga Boulevard, in the heart of Hollywood.^{[17]: 377 [91]: 26}

At intermission on September 7, 1943, KMPC radio interviewed audience and cast members of The Mercury Wonder Show—including Welles and Rita Hayworth, who were married earlier that day. Welles remarked that The Mercury Wonder Show had been performed for approximately 48,000 members of the U.S. armed forces.^{[17]: 378 [36]: 129}

Radio (1944–1945)

Welles led the Treasury Department's campaign urging Americans to buy $16 billion in War Bonds to finance the Normandy landings (June 12 – July 8, 1944).

Welles introduced Vice President Henry A. Wallace at a Madison Square Garden rally advocating a fourth term for President Franklin D. Roosevelt (September 21, 1944).^[17]: 385

Transcription disc label for a Command Performance broadcast featuring Welles (May 17, 1945)^[96]

The idea of doing a radio variety show occurred to Welles after his success as substitute host of four consecutive episodes (March 14 – April 4, 1943) of The Jack Benny Program, radio's most popular show, when Benny contracted pneumonia on a performance tour of military bases.^{[20]: 368 [97]} A half-hour variety show broadcast January 26 – July 19, 1944, on the Columbia Pacific Network, The Orson Welles Almanac presented sketch comedy, magic, mindreading, music and readings from classic works. Many of the shows originated on U.S. military camps, where Welles and his repertory company and guests entertained the troops with a reduced version of The Mercury Wonder Show.^{[49]: 64 [98][99]} The performances of the all-star jazz group Welles brought together for the show were so popular that the band became a regular feature and was an important force in reviving interest in traditional New Orleans jazz.^[100]: 85 Welles was placed on the U.S. Treasury payroll on May 15, 1944, as an expert consultant for the duration of the war, with a retainer of $1 a year.^[101] On the recommendation of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau asked Welles to lead the Fifth War Loan Drive, which opened June 12 with a one-hour radio show on all four networks, broadcast from Texarkana, Texas. Including a statement by the President,^[102] the program defined the causes of the war and encouraged Americans to buy $16 billion in bonds to finance the Normandy landings and the most violent phase of World War II. Welles produced additional war loan drive broadcasts on June 14 from the Hollywood Bowl, and June 16 from Soldier Field, Chicago.^{[20]: 371–373} Americans purchased $20.6 billion in War Bonds during the Fifth War Loan Drive, which ended on July 8, 1944.^[103]

Welles campaigned ardently for Roosevelt in 1944. A long-time supporter and campaign speaker for FDR, he occasionally sent the president ideas and phrases that were sometimes incorporated into what Welles characterized as "less important speeches".^{[20]: 372, 374} One of these ideas was the joke in what came to be called the Fala speech, Roosevelt's nationally broadcast September 23 address to the International Teamsters Union which opened the 1944 presidential campaign.^{[22]: 292–293 [104]}

Welles campaigned for the Roosevelt–Truman ticket almost full-time in the fall of 1944, traveling to nearly every state^{[20]: 373–374} to the detriment of his own health^{[22]: 293–294} and at his own expense.^[9]: 219 In addition to his radio addresses he filled in for Roosevelt, opposite Republican presidential nominee Thomas E. Dewey, at The New York Herald Tribune Forum broadcast October 18 on the Blue Network.^{[17]: 386 [22]: 292} Welles accompanied FDR to his last campaign rally, speaking at an event November 4 at Boston's Fenway Park before 40,000 people,^{[22]: 294 [105]} and took part in a historic election-eve campaign broadcast November 6 on all four radio networks.^{[17]: 387 [69]: 166–167}

On November 21, 1944, Welles began his association with This Is My Best, a CBS radio series he would briefly produce, direct, write and host (March 13 – April 24, 1945).^[106][107] He wrote a political column called Orson Welles' Almanac (later titled Orson Welles Today) for The New York Post January–November 1945, and advocated the continuation of FDR's New Deal policies and his international vision, particularly the establishment of the United Nations and the cause of world peace.^[73]: 84

On April 12, 1945, the day Franklin D. Roosevelt died, the Blue-ABC network marshalled its entire executive staff and national leaders to pay homage to the late president. "Among the outstanding programs which attracted wide attention was a special tribute delivered by Orson Welles", reported Broadcasting magazine.^[108] Welles spoke at 10:10 p.m Eastern War Time, from Hollywood, and stressed the importance of continuing FDR's work: "He has no need for homage and we who loved him have no time for tears ... Our fighting sons and brothers cannot pause tonight to mark the death of him whose name will be given to the age we live in."^[109]

Welles presented another special broadcast on the death of Roosevelt the following evening: "We must move on beyond mere death to that free world which was the hope and labor of his life."^{[17]: 390 [50]: 242}

He dedicated the April 17 episode of This Is My Best to Roosevelt and the future of America on the eve of the United Nations Conference on International Organization.^{[17]: 390 [106][107]} Welles was an advisor and correspondent for the Blue-ABC radio network's coverage of the San Francisco conference that formed the UN, taking place April 24 – June 23, 1945. He presented a half-hour dramatic program written by Ben Hecht on the opening day of the conference, and on Sunday afternoons (April 29 – June 10) he led a weekly discussion from the San Francisco Civic Auditorium.^[110][111]

The Stranger

Main article: The Stranger (1946 film)

Director and star Orson Welles at work on The Stranger (October 1945)

In the fall of 1945 Welles began work on The Stranger (1946), a film noir drama about a war crimes investigator who tracks a high-ranking Nazi fugitive to an idyllic New England town. Edward G. Robinson, Loretta Young and Welles star.^[112]

Producer Sam Spiegel initially planned to hire director John Huston, who had rewritten the screenplay by Anthony Veiller. When Huston entered the military, Welles was given the chance to direct and prove himself able to make a film on schedule and under budget^[36]: 19—something he was so eager to do that he accepted a disadvantageous contract. One of its concessions was that he would defer to the studio in any creative dispute.^{[20]: 379 [22]: 309–310}

The Stranger was Welles's first job as a film director in four years.^[17]: 391 He was told that if the film was successful he could sign a four-picture deal with International Pictures, making films of his own choosing.^[20]: 379 Welles was given some degree of creative control,^[36]: 19 and he endeavored to personalize the film and develop a nightmarish tone.^{[113]: 2:30} He worked on the general rewrite of the script and wrote scenes at the beginning of the picture that were shot but subsequently cut by the producers.^[17]: 186 He filmed in long takes that largely thwarted the control given to editor Ernest J. Nims under the terms of the contract.^{[113]: 15:45}

The Stranger was the first commercial film to use documentary footage from the Nazi concentration camps.^{[17]: 189 [114]} Welles had seen the footage in early May 1945^{[113]: 102:03} in San Francisco,^[115]: 56 as a correspondent and discussion moderator at the UN Conference on International Organization.^[22]: 304 He wrote of the Holocaust footage in his syndicated New York Post column May 7, 1945.^{[115]: 56–57}

Completed a day ahead of schedule and under budget,^{[20]: 379–380} The Stranger was the only film made by Welles to have been a bona fide box office success upon its release. Its cost was $1.034 million; 15 months after its release it had grossed $3.216 million.^[116] Within weeks of the completion of the film, International Pictures backed out of its promised four-picture deal with Welles. No reason was given, but the impression was left that The Stranger would not make money.^[20]: 381

The Lady from Shanghai

Main article: The Lady from Shanghai

The film that Welles was obliged to make in exchange for Harry Cohn's help in financing the stage production Around the World was The Lady from Shanghai, filmed in 1947 for Columbia Pictures. Intended as a modest thriller, the budget skyrocketed after Cohn suggested that Welles's then-estranged second wife Rita Hayworth co-star.

The Lady from Shanghai (1947)

Cohn disliked Welles's rough cut, particularly the confusing plot and lack of close-ups, and was not in sympathy with Welles's Brechtian use of irony and black comedy, especially in a farcical courtroom scene. Cohn ordered extensive editing and re-shoots. After heavy editing by the studio, approximately one hour of Welles's first cut was removed, including much of a climactic confrontation scene in an amusement park funhouse. While expressing displeasure at the cuts, Welles was appalled particularly with the musical score. The film was considered a disaster in America at the time of release, though the closing shootout in a hall of mirrors (the use of mirrors being a recurrent motif of Welles's, starting with Kane) has since become a touchstone of film noir. Not long after release, Welles and Hayworth finalized their divorce.

Although The Lady from Shanghai was acclaimed in Europe, it was not embraced in the U.S. until decades later, where it is now often regarded as a classic of film noir.^[120] A similar difference in reception on opposite sides of the Atlantic, followed by greater American acceptance, befell the Welles-inspired Chaplin film Monsieur Verdoux, originally to be directed by Welles starring Chaplin, then directed by Chaplin with the idea credited to Welles.

Europe (1948–1956)

In Italy he starred as Cagliostro in the 1949 film Black Magic. His co-star, Akim Tamiroff, impressed Welles so much that Tamiroff would appear in four of Welles's productions during the 1950s and 1960s.

The following year, Welles starred as Harry Lime in Carol Reed's The Third Man, alongside Joseph Cotten, his friend and co-star from Citizen Kane, with a script by Graham Greene and a memorable score by Anton Karas. In it, Welles makes what Roger Ebert called "the most famous entrance in the movies, and one of the most famous speeches." Greene credited the speech to Welles.^[123]

A few years later, British radio producer Harry Alan Towers would resurrect the Lime character in the radio series The Adventures of Harry Lime.

Welles appeared as Cesare Borgia in the 1949 Italian film Prince of Foxes, with Tyrone Power and Mercury Theatre alumnus Everett Sloane, and as the Mongol warrior Bayan in the 1950 film version of the novel The Black Rose (again with Tyrone Power). ^[124]

Othello

Main article: Othello (1951 film)

Welles and Suzanne Cloutier in Othello (1951)

During this time, Welles was channeling his money from acting jobs into a self-financed film version of Shakespeare's play Othello. From 1949 to 1951, Welles worked on Othello, filming on location in Italy and Morocco. The film featured Welles's friends Micheál Mac Liammóir as Iago and Hilton Edwards as Desdemona's father Brabantio. Suzanne Cloutier starred as Desdemona and Campbell Playhouse alumnus Robert Coote appeared as Iago's associate Roderigo.

Filming was suspended several times as Welles ran out of funds and left for acting jobs, accounted in detail in MacLiammóir's published memoir Put Money in Thy Purse. The American release prints had a technically flawed soundtrack, suffering from a dropout of sound at every quiet moment. Welles's daughter, Beatrice Welles-Smith, restored Othello in 1992 for a wide re-release. The restoration included reconstructing Angelo Francesco Lavagnino's original musical score, which was originally inaudible, and adding ambient stereo sound effects, which were not in the original film. The restoration went on to a successful theatrical run in America. David Thomson writes of Welles's Othello, "the poetry hangs in the air, like sea mist or incense." Anthony Lane writes that "Some of the action was shot in Venice, and I occasionally wonder what crept into the camera casing; the movie looks blackened and silvery, like an aged mirror, or as if the emulsion of the print were already poised to decay. You can't tell what is or isn't Shakespeare, where his influence begins and ends."^[125] The movie premiered at the Cannes Film Festival, where it won the Grand Prix (precursor of the Palme d'or).^[126]

In 1952, Welles continued finding work in England after the success of the Harry Lime radio show. Harry Alan Towers offered Welles another series, The Black Museum, which ran for 52 weeks with Welles as host and narrator. Director Herbert Wilcox offered Welles the part of the murdered victim in Trent's Last Case, based on the novel by E. C. Bentley. In 1953, the BBC hired Welles to read an hour of selections from Walt Whitman's epic poem Song of Myself. Towers hired Welles again, to play Professor Moriarty in the radio seriesThe Adventures of Sherlock Holmes starring John Gielgud and Ralph Richardson.

Welles briefly returned to America to make his first appearance on television, starring in the Omnibus presentation of King Lear, broadcast live on CBS October 18, 1953. Directed by Peter Brook, the production costarred Natasha Parry, Beatrice Straight and Arnold Moss.^[127]

In 1954, director George More O'Ferrall offered Welles the title role in the 'Lord Mountdrago' segment of Three Cases of Murder, co-starring Alan Badel. Herbert Wilcox cast Welles as the antagonist in Trouble in the Glen opposite Margaret Lockwood, Forrest Tucker and Victor McLaglen. Old friend John Huston cast him as Father Mapple in his 1956 film adaptation of Herman Melville's Moby-Dick, starring Gregory Peck.

Mr. Arkadin

Main article: Mr. Arkadin

Welles in Madrid during filming of Mr. Arkadin in 1954

Welles's next turn as director was the film Mr. Arkadin (1955), which was produced by his political mentor from the 1940s, Louis Dolivet. It was filmed in France, Germany, Spain and Italy on a very limited budget. Based loosely on several episodes of the Harry Lime radio show, it stars Welles as a billionaire who hires a man to delve into the secrets of his past. The film stars Robert Arden, who had worked on the Harry Lime series; Welles's third wife, Paola Mori, whose voice was dubbed by actress Billie Whitelaw; and guest stars Akim Tamiroff, Michael Redgrave, Katina Paxinou and Mischa Auer. Frustrated by his slow progress in the editing room, producer Dolivet removed Welles from the project and finished the film without him. Eventually, five different versions of the film would be released, two in Spanish and three in English. The version that Dolivet completed was retitled Confidential Report. In 2005 Stefan Droessler of the Munich Film Museum oversaw a reconstruction of the surviving film elements.

Return to Hollywood (1956–1959)

Welles the magician with Lucille Ball in I Love Lucy (October 15, 1956)

In 1956, Welles returned to Hollywood.^[128]

He began filming a projected pilot for Desilu, owned by Lucille Ball and her husband Desi Arnaz, who had recently purchased the former RKO studios. The film was The Fountain of Youth, based on a story by John Collier. Originally deemed not viable as a pilot, the film was not aired until 1958—and won the Peabody Award for excellence.

Welles guest starred on television shows including I Love Lucy.^[129] On radio, he was narrator of Tomorrow (October 17, 1956), a nuclear holocaust drama produced and syndicated by ABC and the Federal Civil Defense Administration.^[130][131]

Welles's next feature film role was in Man in the Shadow for Universal Pictures in 1957, starring Jeff Chandler.

Touch of Evil

Main article: Touch of Evil

Welles, Victor Millan, Joseph Calleia and Charlton Heston in Touch of Evil (1958)

Welles stayed on at Universal to direct (and co-star with) Charlton Heston in the 1958 film Touch of Evil, based on Whit Masterson's novel Badge of Evil. Originally only hired as an actor, Welles was promoted to director by Universal Studios at the insistence of Heston.^[132]: 154 The film reunited many actors and technicians with whom Welles had worked in Hollywood in the 1940s, including cameraman Russell Metty (The Stranger), makeup artist Maurice Seiderman (Citizen Kane), and actors Joseph Cotten, Marlene Dietrich and Akim Tamiroff. Filming proceeded smoothly, with Welles finishing on schedule and on budget, and the studio bosses praising the daily rushes. Nevertheless, after the end of production, the studio re-edited the film, re-shot scenes, and shot new exposition scenes to clarify the plot.^{[132]: 175–176} Welles wrote a 58-page memo outlining suggestions and objections, stating that the film was no longer his version—it was the studio's, but as such, he was still prepared to help with it.^{[132]: 175–176 [133]} The movie was shown at the 1958 Brussels World's Fair, where it won the grand prize.^[134] François Truffaut saw the film in Brussels, and it influenced his debut The 400 Blows, one of the seminal films of the French New Wave.

In 1978, a longer preview version of the film was discovered and released. In 1998, Walter Murch reedited the film according to Welles's specifications in his memo. Murch said "I'm just flabbergasted when I read his memos, thinking that he was writing these ideas forty years ago, because, if I was working on a film now and a director came up with ideas like these, I'd be amazed – pleased but amazed – to realize that someone was thinking that hard about sound – which is all too rare."^[135] The film was influential in its use of a handheld camera, notably in the scene in the elevator. Murch says that "I'm sure Godard and Truffaut, who were big fans of Touch of Evil, learned from that scene how they could achieve exactly what they wanted—at once both a fresh sense of reality and ingenuity."^[136]

As Universal reworked Touch of Evil, Welles began filming his adaptation of Miguel de Cervantes's novel Don Quixote in Mexico, starring Mischa Auer as Quixote and Akim Tamiroff as Sancho Panza.

Return to Europe (1959–1970)

Welles in Crack in the Mirror (1960)

He continued shooting Don Quixote in Spain and Italy, but replaced Mischa Auer with Francisco Reiguera, and resumed acting jobs. In Italy in 1959, Welles directed his own scenes as King Saul in Richard Pottier's film David and Goliath. In Hong Kong, he co-starred with Curt Jürgens in Lewis Gilbert's film Ferry to Hong Kong. In 1960, in Paris he co-starred in Richard Fleischer's film Crack in the Mirror. In Yugoslavia he starred in Richard Thorpe's film The Tartars and Veljko Bulajić's Battle of Neretva.

Throughout the 1960s, filming continued on Quixote on-and-off until the end of the decade, as Welles evolved the concept, tone and ending several times. Although he had a complete version of the film shot and edited at least once, he would continue toying with the editing well into the 1980s; he never completed a version of the film he was fully satisfied with and would junk existing footage and shoot new footage. (In one case, he had a complete cut ready in which Quixote and Sancho Panza end up going to the Moon, but he felt the ending was rendered obsolete by the 1969 Moon landings and burned 10 reels of this version.) As the process went on, Welles gradually voiced all of the characters himself and provided narration. In 1992, the director Jesús Franco constructed a film out of the portions of Quixote left behind by Welles. Some of the film stock had decayed badly. While the Welles footage was greeted with interest, the post-production by Franco was met with harsh criticism.

In 1961, Welles directed In the Land of Don Quixote, a series of eight half-hour episodes for the Italian television network RAI. Similar to the Around the World with Orson Welles series, they presented travelogues of Spain and included Welles's wife, Paola, and their daughter, Beatrice. Though Welles was fluent in Italian, the network was not interested in him providing Italian narration because of his accent, and the series sat unreleased until 1964, by which time the network had added Italian narration of its own. Ultimately, versions of the episodes were released with the original musical score Welles had approved, but without the narration.

Chimes at Midnight

Main article: Chimes at Midnight

Chimes at Midnight (1965)

Filmed in Spain, Chimes at Midnight was based on Welles's play, Five Kings, in which he drew material from six Shakespeare plays to tell the story of Sir John Falstaff (Welles) and his relationship with Prince Hal (Keith Baxter). The cast includes John Gielgud, Jeanne Moreau, Fernando Rey and Margaret Rutherford; the film's narration, spoken by Ralph Richardson, is taken from the chronicler Raphael Holinshed.^[36]: 249 Welles held the film in high regard: "It's my favorite picture, yes. If I wanted to get into heaven on the basis of one movie, that's the one I would offer up."^[78]: 203 Anthony Lane writes that "what Welles means to conjure up is not just historical continuity—the very best of Sir John—but a sense that the Complete Works of Shakespeare constitute, as it were, one vast poem, from which his devoted and audacious interpreters are free to quote... the picture both honors Shakespeare and spurns the industry, academic and theatrical, that has encrusted him over time."^[138]

In 1966, Welles directed a film for French television, an adaptation of The Immortal Story, by Karen Blixen. Released in 1968, it stars Jeanne Moreau, Roger Coggio and Norman Eshley. The film had a successful run in French theaters. At this time Welles met Oja Kodar again, and gave her a letter he had written to her and had been keeping for four years; they would not be parted again. They immediately began a collaboration both personal and professional. The first of these was an adaptation of Blixen's The Heroine, meant to be a companion piece to The Immortal Story and starring Kodar. Unfortunately, funding disappeared after one day's shooting. After completing this film, he appeared in a brief cameo as Cardinal Wolsey in Fred Zinnemann's adaptation of A Man for All Seasons—a role for which he won considerable acclaim.

Sergei Bondarchuk and Welles at the Battle of Neretva premiere in Sarajevo (November 1969)

In 1967, Welles began directing The Deep, based on the novel Dead Calm by Charles Williams and filmed off the shore of Yugoslavia. The cast included Jeanne Moreau, Laurence Harvey and Kodar. Personally financed by Welles and Kodar, they could not obtain the funds to complete the project, and it was abandoned a few years later after the death of Harvey. The surviving footage was eventually edited and released by the Filmmuseum München. In 1968 Welles began filming a TV special for CBS under the title Orson's Bag, combining travelogue, comedy skits and a condensation of Shakespeare's play The Merchant of Venice with Welles as Shylock. In 1969 Welles called again the Film Editor Frederick Muller to work with him re-editing the material and they set up cutting rooms at the Safa Palatino Studios in Rome. Funding for the show sent by CBS to Welles in Switzerland was seized by the IRS. Without funding, the show was not completed. The surviving film clips portions were eventually released by the Filmmuseum München.

In 1969, Welles authorized the use of his name for a cinema in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Orson Welles Cinema remained in operation until 1986, with Welles making a personal appearance there in 1977. Also in 1969, he played a supporting role in John Huston's The Kremlin Letter. Drawn by the numerous offers he received to work in television and films, and upset by a tabloid scandal reporting his affair with Kodar, Welles abandoned the editing of Don Quixote and moved back to America in 1970.

Later career (1970–1985)

Welles returned to Hollywood, where he continued to self-finance his film and television projects. While offers to act, narrate and host continued, Welles also found himself in great demand on television talk shows. He made frequent appearances for Dick Cavett, Johnny Carson, Dean Martin and Merv Griffin.

Welles's primary focus during his final years was The Other Side of the Wind, a project that was filmed intermittently between 1970 and 1976. Co-written by Welles and Oja Kodar, it is the story of an aging film director (John Huston) looking for funds to complete his final film. The cast includes Peter Bogdanovich, Susan Strasberg, Norman Foster, Edmond O'Brien, Cameron Mitchell and Dennis Hopper. Financed by Iranian backers, ownership of the film fell into a legal quagmire after the Shah of Iran was deposed. The legal disputes kept the film in its unfinished state until early 2017 and it was finally released in November 2018.

Welles portrayed Louis XVIII of France in the 1970 film Waterloo, and narrated the beginning and ending scenes of the historical comedy Start the Revolution Without Me (1970).

In 1971, Welles directed a short adaptation of Moby-Dick, a one-man performance on a bare stage, reminiscent of his 1955 stage production Moby Dick – Rehearsed. Never completed, it was eventually released by the Filmmuseum München. He also appeared in Ten Days' Wonder, co-starring with Anthony Perkins and directed by Claude Chabrol (who reciprocated with a bit part as himself in Other Wind), based on a detective novel by Ellery Queen. That same year, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences gave him an Academy Honorary Award "for superlative artistry and versatility in the creation of motion pictures." Welles pretended to be out of town and sent John Huston to claim the award, thanking the academy on film. In his speech, Huston criticized the academy for presenting the award while refusing to support Welles's projects.

In 1972, Welles acted as on-screen narrator for the film documentary version of Alvin Toffler's 1970 book Future Shock. Working again for a British producer, Welles played Long John Silver in director John Hough's Treasure Island (1972), an adaptation of the Robert Louis Stevenson novel, which had been the second story broadcast by The Mercury Theatre on the Air in 1938. This was the last time he played the lead role in a major film. Welles also contributed to the script, although his writing credit was attributed to the pseudonym 'O. W. Jeeves'. In some versions of the film Welles's original recorded dialog was redubbed by Robert Rietty.

Orson Welles in F for Fake (1974), a film essay and the last film he completed

In 1973, Welles completed F for Fake, a personal essay film about art forger Elmyr de Hory and the biographer Clifford Irving. Based on an existing documentary by François Reichenbach, it included new material with Oja Kodar, Joseph Cotten, Paul Stewart and William Alland. An excerpt of Welles's 1930s War of the Worlds broadcast was recreated for this film; however, none of the dialogue heard in the film actually matches what was originally broadcast. Welles filmed a five-minute trailer, rejected in the U.S., that featured several shots of a topless Kodar.

Welles hosted a British syndicated anthology series, Orson Welles's Great Mysteries, during the 1973–74 television season. His brief introductions to the 26 half-hour episodes were shot in July 1973 by Gary Graver.^[17]: 443 The year 1974 also saw Welles lending his voice for that year's remake of Agatha Christie's classic thriller Ten Little Indians produced by his former associate, Harry Alan Towers and starring an international cast that included Oliver Reed, Elke Sommer and Herbert Lom.

In 1975, Welles narrated the documentary Bugs Bunny: Superstar, focusing on Warner Bros. cartoons from the 1940s. Also in 1975, the American Film Institute presented Welles with its third Lifetime Achievement Award (the first two going to director John Ford and actor James Cagney). At the ceremony, Welles screened two scenes from the nearly finished The Other Side of the Wind.

In 1976, Paramount Television purchased the rights for the entire set of Rex Stout's Nero Wolfe stories for Orson Welles.^{[lower-alpha 4][142][143][144]} Welles had once wanted to make a series of Nero Wolfe movies, but Rex Stout—who was leery of Hollywood adaptations during his lifetime after two disappointing 1930s films—turned him down.^[143] Paramount planned to begin with an ABC-TV movie and hoped to persuade Welles to continue the role in a miniseries.^[142] Frank D. Gilroy was signed to write the television script and direct the TV movie on the assurance that Welles would star, but by April 1977 Welles had bowed out.^[145] In 1980 the Associated Press reported "the distinct possibility" that Welles would star in a Nero Wolfe TV series for NBC television.^[146] Again, Welles bowed out of the project due to creative differences and William Conrad was cast in the role.^{[147][148]: 87–88}

In 1979, Welles completed his documentary Filming Othello, which featured Michael MacLiammoir and Hilton Edwards. Made for West German television, it was also released in theaters. That same year, Welles completed his self-produced pilot for The Orson Welles Show television series, featuring interviews with Burt Reynolds, Jim Henson and Frank Oz and guest-starring the Muppets and Angie Dickinson. Unable to find network interest, the pilot was never broadcast. Also in 1979, Welles appeared in the biopic The Secret of Nikola Tesla, and a cameo in The Muppet Movie as Lew Lord.

Beginning in the late 1970s, Welles participated in a series of famous television commercial advertisements. For two years he was on-camera spokesman for the Paul Masson Vineyards,^{[lower-alpha 5]} and sales grew by one third during the time Welles intoned what became a popular catchphrase: "We will sell no wine before its time."^[150] He was also the voice behind the long-running Carlsberg "Probably the best lager in the world" campaign,^[151] promoted Domecq sherry on British television^[152] and provided narration on adverts for Findus, though the actual adverts have been overshadowed by a famous blooper reel of voice recordings, known as the Frozen Peas reel. He also did commercials for the Preview Subscription Television Service seen on stations around the country including WCLQ/Cleveland, KNDL/St. Louis and WSMW/Boston. As money ran short, he began directing commercials to make ends meet, including the famous British "Follow the Bear" commercials for Hofmeister lager.^[153]

In 1981, Welles hosted the documentary The Man Who Saw Tomorrow, about Renaissance-era prophet Nostradamus. In 1982, the BBC broadcast The Orson Welles Story in the Arena series. Interviewed by Leslie Megahey, Welles examined his past in great detail, and several people from his professional past were interviewed as well. It was reissued in 1990 as With Orson Welles: Stories of a Life in Film. Welles provided narration for the tracks "Defender" from Manowar's 1987 album Fighting the World and "Dark Avenger" on their 1982 album, Battle Hymns. He also recorded the concert introduction for the live performances of Manowar that says, "Ladies and gentlemen, from the United States of America, all hail Manowar." Manowar have been using this introduction for all of their concerts since then.

During the 1980s, Welles worked on such film projects as The Dreamers, based on two stories by Isak Dinesen and starring Oja Kodar, and Orson Welles' Magic Show, which reused material from his failed TV pilot. Another project he worked on was Filming the Trial, the second in a proposed series of documentaries examining his feature films. While much was shot for these projects, none of them was completed. All of them were eventually released by the Filmmuseum München.

In 1984, Welles narrated the short-lived television series Scene of the Crime. During the early years of Magnum, P.I., Welles was the voice of the unseen character Robin Masters, a famous writer and playboy. Welles's death forced this minor character to largely be written out of the series. In an oblique homage to Welles, the Magnum, P.I. producers ambiguously concluded that story arc by having one character accuse another of having hired an actor to portray Robin Masters.^[154] He also, in this penultimate year released a music single, titled "I Know What It Is to Be Young (But You Don't Know What It Is to Be Old)", which he recorded under Italian label Compagnia Generale del Disco. The song was performed with the Nick Perito Orchestra and the Ray Charles Singers and produced by Jerry Abbott (father of guitarist "Dimebag Darrell" Abbott).^[155]

The last film roles before Welles's death included voice work in the animated films Enchanted Journey (1984) and the animated film The Transformers: The Movie (1986), in which he provided the voice for the planet-eating supervillain Unicron. His last film appearance was in Henry Jaglom's 1987 independent film Someone to Love, released two years after his death but produced before his voice-over in Transformers: The Movie. His last television appearance was on the television show Moonlighting. He recorded an introduction to an episode entitled "The Dream Sequence Always Rings Twice", which was partially filmed in black and white. The episode aired five days after his death and was dedicated to his memory.

In the mid-1980s, Henry Jaglom taped lunch conversations with Welles at Los Angeles's Ma Maison as well as in New York. Edited transcripts of these sessions appear in Peter Biskind's 2013 book My Lunches With Orson: Conversations Between Henry Jaglom and Orson Welles.^[156]

Personal life

Relationships and family

Welles and Virginia Nicolson Welles with their daughter Christopher Marlowe Welles (1938)

Welles and Dolores del Río (1941)

Wedding of Welles and Rita Hayworth, with best man Joseph Cotten (September 7, 1943)

Daughter Rebecca Welles and Rita Hayworth (December 23, 1946)

Paola Mori and Welles, days before their marriage (May 1955)

Orson Welles and Chicago-born actress and socialite Virginia Nicolson (1916–1996) were married on November 14, 1934.^[17]: 332 "Regardless of his later comments, the two were very much in love," wrote biographer Patrick McGilligan, "and she was his salvation."^{[157][lower-alpha 6]} The couple separated in December 1939^[20]: 226 and were divorced on February 1, 1940.^[158][159] After bearing with Welles's romances in New York, Virginia had learned that Welles had fallen in love with Mexican actress Dolores del Río.^[20]: 227

Infatuated with her since adolescence, Welles met del Río at Darryl Zanuck's ranch^[22]: 206 soon after he moved to Hollywood in 1939.^{[20]: 227 [22]: 168} Their relationship was kept secret until 1941, when del Río filed for divorce from her second husband. They openly appeared together in New York while Welles was directing the Mercury stage production Native Son.^[22]: 212 They acted together in the movie Journey into Fear (1943). Their relationship came to an end due, among other things, to Welles's infidelities. Del Río returned to Mexico in 1943, shortly before Welles married Rita Hayworth.^[160]

Welles married Rita Hayworth on September 7, 1943.^[22]: 278 They were divorced on November 10, 1947.^[93]: 142 During his last interview, recorded for The Merv Griffin Show on the evening before his death, Welles called Hayworth "one of the dearest and sweetest women that ever lived ... and we were a long time together—I was lucky enough to have been with her longer than any of the other men in her life."^[161]

In 1955, Welles married actress Paola Mori (née Countess Paola di Gerfalco), an Italian aristocrat who starred as Raina Arkadin in his 1955 film, Mr. Arkadin. The couple began a passionate affair, and they were married at her parents' insistence.^[26]: 168 They were wed in London May 8, 1955,^{[17]: 417, 419} and never divorced.

Croatian-born artist and actress Oja Kodar became Welles's long-time companion both personally and professionally from 1966 onward, and they lived together for some of the last twenty years of his life.^{[26]: 255–258}

Welles had three daughters from his marriages: Christopher Welles Feder (born 1938, with Virginia Nicolson);^{[lower-alpha 7][22]: 148} Rebecca Welles Manning (1944–2004),^[162] with Rita Hayworth; and Beatrice Welles (born 1955, with Paola Mori).^[17]: 419

Welles is thought to have had a son, British director Michael Lindsay-Hogg (born 1940), with Irish actress Geraldine Fitzgerald, then the wife of Sir Edward Lindsay-Hogg, 4th baronet.^[32][163] When Lindsay-Hogg was 16, his mother reluctantly divulged pervasive rumors that his father was Welles, and she denied them—but in such detail that he doubted her veracity.^{[164][165]: 15} Fitzgerald evaded the subject for the rest of her life. Lindsay-Hogg knew Welles, worked with him in the theatre and met him at intervals throughout Welles's life.^[163] After learning that Welles's oldest daughter, Chris, his childhood playmate, had long suspected that he was her brother,^[166] Lindsay-Hogg initiated a DNA test that proved inconclusive. In his 2011 autobiography, Lindsay-Hogg reported that his questions were resolved by his mother's close friend Gloria Vanderbilt, who wrote that Fitzgerald had told her that Welles was his father.^{[165]: 265–267} A 2015 Welles biography by Patrick McGilligan, however, reports the impossibility of Welles's paternity: Fitzgerald left the U.S. for Ireland in May 1939, and her son was conceived before her return in late October, whereas Welles did not travel overseas during that period.^[11]: 602

After the death of Rebecca Welles Manning, a man named Marc McKerrow was revealed to be her son—and therefore a direct descendant of Orson Welles and Rita Hayworth—after he requested his adoption records unsealed. While McKerrow and Rebecca were never able to meet due to her cancer, they were in touch before her death, and he attended her funeral. McKerrow's reactions to the revelation and his meeting with Oja Kodar are documented in the 2008 film Prodigal Sons by his sister Kim Reed.^[167] McKerrow died on June 18, 2010, suddenly in his sleep at the age of 44. His death was "...caused by complications from a nocturnal seizure" related to a car accident and resulting injury when he was younger.^[168][169]

In the 1940s, Welles had a brief relationship with Maila Nurmi, who, according to the bio Glamour Ghoul: The Passions and Pain of the Real Vampira, Maila Nurmi, became pregnant; since Welles was at the time married to Hayworth, Nurmi gave the child up for adoption.^[170] However, the child mentioned in the book was born in 1944. Nurmi revealed in an interview weeks before her death in January 2008 how she met Welles in a New York casting office in the spring of 1946.^[171]

Despite an urban legend promoted by Welles,^{[lower-alpha 8][lower-alpha 9]} he is not related to Abraham Lincoln's wartime Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Welles. The myth dates back to the first newspaper feature ever written about Welles—"Cartoonist, Actor, Poet and only 10"—in the February 19, 1926, issue of The Capital Times. The article falsely states that he was descended from "Gideon Welles, who was a member of President Lincoln's cabinet".^{[9]: 47–48 [73]: 311} As presented by Charles Higham in a genealogical chart that introduces his 1985 biography of Welles, Orson Welles's father was Richard Head Welles (born Wells), son of Richard Jones Wells, son of Henry Hill Wells (who had an uncle named Gideon Wells), son of William Hill Wells, son of Richard Wells (1734–1801).^[9]

Politics and activism

Welles was politically active from the beginning of his career. He remained aligned with left-wing politics and the American Left throughout his life,^[180] and always defined his political orientation as "progressive". A Democrat, he was an outspoken critic of racism in the United States and the practice of segregation.^[73]: 46 He was a strong supporter of Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal and often spoke out on radio in support of progressive politics.^[180] He campaigned heavily for Roosevelt in the 1944 election.^[180]

In a 1983 conversation with his friend Roger Hill, Welles recalled: "During a White House dinner, when I was campaigning for Roosevelt, in a toast, with considerable tongue in cheek, he said, 'Orson, you and I are the two greatest actors alive today.' In private that evening, and on several other occasions, he urged me to run for a Senate seat in either California or Wisconsin. He wasn't alone."^[21]: 115 In the 1980s, Welles still expressed admiration for Roosevelt but also described his presidency as "a semidictatorship".^[181]p. 187

During a 1970 appearance on The Dick Cavett Show, Welles claimed to have met Hitler while hiking in Austria with a teacher who was a "budding Nazi". He said that Hitler made no impression on him at all and does not remember him. He said that he had no personality at all: "He was invisible. There was nothing there until there were 5,000 people yelling sieg heil."^[182]

In 1946, Welles took to the airwaves in a series of radio broadcasts demanding justice for a decorated Black veteran Isaac Woodard, who had been beaten and blinded by white police officers. Welles devoted his July 28, 1946 program to reading Woodard's affidavit and vowing to bring the officer responsible to justice. He continued his crusade over four subsequent Sunday afternoon broadcasts on ABC Radio. "The NAACP felt that these broadcasts did more than anything else to prompt the Justice Department to act on the case," the Museum of Broadcasting stated in its 1988 retrospect Orson Welles on the Air: The Radio Years.^[183]

For several years, he wrote a newspaper column on political issues and considered running for the U.S. Senate in 1946, representing his home state of Wisconsin—a seat that was ultimately won by Joseph McCarthy.^[180]

Welles's political activities were reported on pages 155–157 of Red Channels, the anti-Communist publication that, in part, fueled the already flourishing Hollywood Blacklist.^[184] He was in Europe during the height of the Red Scare, thereby adding one more reason for the Hollywood establishment to ostracize him.^[185]

In 1970, Welles narrated (but did not write) a satirical political record on the rise of President Richard Nixon titled The Begatting of the President.^[186]

In the late 1970s Welles referred to Josip Tito as "the greatest man in the world today" on Yugoslav television.^[187]

Welles spoke before a crowd of 700,000 at a nuclear disarmament rally in Central Park on June 12, 1982, and attacked the policies of President Ronald Reagan and the Republican party.^[188]

American: An Odyssey to 1947, a documentary by Danny Wu that looks at Welles's life against the political landscape of the 1930s and 1940s, had its premiere at the Newport Beach Film Festival in October 2022.^[189]

Death and tributes

On the evening of October 9, 1985, Welles recorded his final interview on the syndicated TV program The Merv Griffin Show, appearing with biographer Barbara Leaming. "Both Welles and Leaming talked of Welles's life, and the segment was a nostalgic interlude," wrote biographer Frank Brady.^{[20]: 590–591} Welles returned to his house in Hollywood and worked into the early hours typing stage directions for the project he and Gary Graver were planning to shoot at UCLA the following day. Welles died sometime on the morning of October 10, following a heart attack.^[17]: 453 He was found by his chauffeur at around 10 a.m.; the first of Welles's friends to arrive was Paul Stewart.^{[73]: 295–297} Welles was 70 years old at his death.

Welles was cremated by prior agreement with the executor of his estate, Greg Garrison,^[20]: 592 whose advice about making lucrative TV appearances in the 1970s made it possible for Welles to pay off a portion of the taxes he owed the IRS.^{[20]: 549–550} A brief private funeral was attended by Paola Mori and Welles's three daughters—the first time they had ever been together. Only a few close friends were invited: Garrison, Graver, Roger Hill^[73]: 298 and Prince Alessandro Tasca di Cuto. Chris Welles Feder later described the funeral as an awful experience.^{[26]: 1–9}

A public memorial tribute^[20]: 593 took place November 2, 1985, at the Directors Guild of America Theater in Los Angeles. Host Peter Bogdanovich introduced speakers including Charles Champlin, Geraldine Fitzgerald, Greg Garrison, Charlton Heston, Roger Hill, Henry Jaglom, Arthur Knight, Oja Kodar, Barbara Leaming, Janet Leigh, Norman Lloyd, Dan O'Herlihy, Patrick Terrail and Robert Wise.^{[20]: 594 [73]: 299–300}

"I know what his feelings were regarding his death", Joseph Cotten later wrote. "He did not want a funeral; he wanted to be buried quietly in a little place in Spain. He wanted no memorial services ..." Cotten declined to attend the memorial program; instead, he sent a short message, ending with the last two lines of a Shakespeare sonnet that Welles had sent him on his most recent birthday:^[43]: 216

But if the while I think on thee, dear friend,
All losses are restored and sorrows end.^[43]: 217

Bogdanovich, who was directed by Welles in The Other Side of the Wind, wrote that "being directed by Welles was like breathing pure oxygen all day long. He was so totally in control that he never had to prove a point out of any kind. I never saw him get angry or impatient, or raise his voice in any way but hilarity... Sometimes Orson was holding the camera himself, but wherever the camera was, he had put it there, and all the lights were placed exactly where he said they were to be put. There wasn't anything seen or heard in any scene that wasn't there because Orson wanted it that way, but he was never dictatorial."^[190]

In 1987 the ashes of Welles were taken to Ronda, Spain, and buried in an old well covered by flowers on the rural estate of a long-time friend, bullfighter Antonio Ordóñez.^{[73]: 298–299 [191][lower-alpha 10][lower-alpha 11]}

Unfinished projects

Welles's reliance on self-production meant that many of his later projects were filmed piecemeal or were not completed. Welles financed his later projects through his own fundraising activities. He often also took on other work to obtain money to fund his own films.

Theatre credits

Radio credits

Filmography

Discography

Awards and honors

The National Board of Review recognized both Welles and George Coulouris for their performances in Citizen Kane (1941), which was also voted the year's best film.

• 1933: Welles's stage production of Twelfth Night for the Todd School for Boys received first prize^[17]: 330 from the Chicago Drama League after competition at the Century of Progress Exposition of 1933, the Chicago World's Fair.^{[192][lower-alpha 12]}
• 1938: As director of the Mercury Theatre, Welles received the New York Drama Study Club Award for "the greatest contribution toward a living, breathing theatre this season".^[193]
• 1939: For "his most conspicuous contribution this last year to the theatre and to radio drama," Welles received the Essex County Symphony Society's first annual Achievement Award.^[194]
• 1941: Citizen Kane received the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Picture.^[195]
• 1942: The National Board of Review voted Citizen Kane Best Film of 1941,^[196] and recognized Welles for his performance.^[197]
• 1942: Citizen Kane received nine nominations at the 1941 Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director and Best Actor in a Leading Role for Welles. It won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay, an award Welles shared with Herman J. Mankiewicz.^[198]
• 1943: The Magnificent Ambersons was nominated for four 1942 Academy Awards, including Best Picture.^[198]
• 1945: On May 24, 1945, the Interracial Film and Radio Guild honored Welles for his contributions to interracial harmony through radio. Presented at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles, the guild's second annual awards ceremony also honored Eddie "Rochester" Anderson, Norman Corwin, Bing Crosby, Bette Davis, Lena Horne, James Wong Howe, Earl Robinson, Nathan Straus and Miguel C. Torres.^{[176]: 214–215 [199]}
• 1947: The Stranger was nominated for the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival.^[200]
• 1952: Othello won the Palme d'Or at the 1952 Cannes Film Festival.^[201]
• 1958: Although Universal Pictures did its best to prevent Touch of Evil from being selected for the 1958 Brussels World Film Festival—part of the Expo 58 world's fair—the film received its European premiere and Welles was invited to attend. To his astonishment,^[202] Welles collected the two top awards. Touch of Evil received the International Critics Prize, and Welles was recognized for his body of work.^[203][204]
• 1959: Welles received a special 1958 Peabody Award for The Fountain of Youth,^[205] the only unsold TV pilot ever so honored.
• 1959: For their ensemble work in Compulsion, Orson Welles, Bradford Dillman and Dean Stockwell shared the prize for Best Actor at the Cannes Film Festival.^[17]: 425
• 1966: Chimes at Midnight was screened in competition for the Palme d'Or at the 1966 Cannes Films Festival and won the 20th Anniversary Prize ("Honneure") and the Technical Grand Prize. In Spain, it won the Citizens Writers Circle Award for Best Film.^[206]
• 1968: Welles was nominated for Best Foreign Actor in a Leading Role at the 21st British Academy Film Awards for his performance in Chimes at Midnight.^[207]
• 1970: The Venice Film Festival awarded Welles the Golden Lion for Career Achievement.^[208]
• 1970: Welles was given an Academy Honorary Award for "superlative and distinguished service in the making of motion pictures."^[209] Welles did not attend the ceremony: "I didn't go, because I feel like a damn fool at those things. I feel foolish, really foolish. ... I made a piece of film and said that I was in Spain, and thanked them."^[22]: 511
• 1975: Welles received the American Film Institute Lifetime Achievement Award.^[210]
• 1976: Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word or Non-Musical Album for "Great American Documents", shared with Helen Hayes, Henry Fonda and James Earl Jones.^[211]
• 1978: Welles was presented with the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Career Achievement Award.^[212]
• 1979: Welles received the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Recording for the complete motion picture soundtrack for Citizen Kane.^[213]
• 1979: Welles was inducted into the National Association of Broadcasters Broadcasting Hall of Fame.^[214]
• 1981: Welles received a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Recording for his role on Donovan's Brain.^[215]
• 1982: In Paris on February 23, 1982, President François Mitterrand presented Welles with the Order of Commander of the Légion d'honneur, the highest civilian decoration in France.^{[17]: 449 [73]: 207}
• 1982: Welles was nominated for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture at the Golden Globe Awards for his role in Butterfly.^[216] For the same role, he was nominated for the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor, won by Ed McMahon in the same film, which was also nominated for the award for Worst Picture.^[217]
• 1983: Welles was made a member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts.^[22]: 508
• 1983: Welles was an inaugural recipient of the British Film Institute Fellowship.^[218]
• 1984: The Directors Guild of America presented Welles with its greatest honor, the D. W. Griffith Award.^[1]
• 1984: Welles received a Special Fellowship from The Academy of Magical Arts.^[219][220]
• 1985: Welles received the Career Achievement Award from the National Board of Review.^[221]
• 1988: Welles was inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame.^[222]
• 1993: The 1992 audiobook version of This is Orson Welles by Welles and Peter Bogdanovich was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word or Non-Musical Album.^[223][224]
• 1998: In 1998 and 2007, the American Film Institute ranked Citizen Kane as the greatest American movie.^[225] These other Welles films were nominated for the AFI list: The Magnificent Ambersons (1942, director/producer/screenwriter); The Third Man (1949, actor); Touch of Evil (1958, actor/director/screenwriter); and A Man for All Seasons (1966, actor).^[226]
• 1999: The American Film Institute acknowledged Welles as one of the top 25 male motion picture stars of Classic Hollywood cinema in its survey, AFI's 100 Years...100 Stars.^[227]
• 2002: Welles was voted the greatest film director of all time in two British Film Institute polls, of directors^[6] and critics.^[7]
• 2002: A highly divergent genus of Hawaiian spiders Orsonwelles was named in his honor.^[228]
• 2003: A crater on Mars was named in his honor.^[229]
• 2007: A statue of Welles sculpted by Oja Kodar was installed in the city of Split, Croatia.^{[26]: 256 [230]}
• 2013: On February 10, 2013, the Woodstock Opera House in Woodstock, Illinois, dedicated its stage to Welles, honoring the site of his American debut as a professional theatre director.^[231]
• 2015: Throughout 2015, numerous festivals and events observed the 100th anniversary of Welles's birth.^[232]
• 2017: A survey of critical consensus, best-of lists, and historical retrospectives finds Welles to be the second most acclaimed director of all time (behind Alfred Hitchcock).^[233]

Legacy and reception

David Thomson credits Welles with "the creation of a visual style that is simultaneously baroque and precise, overwhelmingly emotional, and unerringly founded in reality."^[234] Welles was a lifelong lover of Shakespeare, and Peter Bogdanovich writes that Chimes at Midnight, in which Welles plays John Falstaff, is "arguably his best film, and his own personal favorite";^[235] Joseph McBride and Jonathan Rosenbaum have called it Welles's masterpiece, and Vincent Canby wrote "it may be the greatest Shakespearean film ever made."^[236]

After Welles went to South America to film the documentary It's All True, RKO cut more than forty minutes from Ambersons and added a happier ending, against his wishes. The missing footage from Ambersons has been called a "holy grail" of cinema.^[237] Welles wrote a 58-page memo to Universal about the editing of Touch of Evil, which they disregarded.^[133] In 1998, Walter Murch reedited the film according to Welles's specifications.^[238] With a development spanning almost 50 years, Welles's final film, The Other Side of the Wind, was posthumously released in 2018. Micheál Mac Liammóir, who played Iago in Welles's Othello, said "Orson's courage, like everything else about him, imagination, egotism, generosity, ruthlessness, forbearance, impatience, sensitivity, grossness and vision is magnificently out of proportion."^[239]

Known for his baritone voice,^[240] Welles performed extensively across theatre, radio, and film. He was a lifelong magician, noted for presenting troop variety shows in the war years. He was a lifelong member of the International Brotherhood of Magicians and the Society of American Magicians.^[241]

Cultural references

• Director Peter Jackson cast Montreal actor Jean Guérin as Welles in his 1994 film, Heavenly Creatures.^[242]
• Vincent D'Onofrio portrayed Welles in a cameo appearance in Tim Burton's 1994 film, Ed Wood, where he briefly appears and encourages the eponymous filmmaker to fight for making his movies his own way in spite of his producers.^[243]
• Voice actor Maurice LaMarche is known for his Welles impression, heard in Ed Wood (in which he dubbed the dialog of Vincent D'Onofrio); the 1994–95 primetime animated series, The Critic; a 2006 episode of The Simpsons; and a 2011 episode of Futurama for which LaMarche won an Emmy Award. The voice he created for the character Brain from the animated series Animaniacs and Pinky and the Brain was largely influenced by Welles.^[244]
• The 1996 film The Battle Over Citizen Kane, which chronicles the conflict between Welles and Hearst, was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.^[245][246]
• Welles is a recurring character in the Anno Dracula series by author and critic Kim Newman, appearing in Dracula Cha Cha Cha (1998) and Johnny Alucard (2013).^[247][248]
• In 1999 Welles appeared on a U.S. postage stamp in a scene from Citizen Kane. The United States Postal Service was petitioned to honor Welles with a stamp in 2015, the 100th anniversary of his birth, but the effort did not succeed.^[249]
• The 1999 HBO docudrama, RKO 281, tells the story of the making of Citizen Kane, starring Liev Schreiber as Orson Welles.^[250]
• Tim Robbins's 1999 film Cradle Will Rock chronicles the process and events surrounding Welles and John Houseman's production of the 1937 musical by Marc Blitzstein. Welles is played by actor Angus MacFadyen.^[251]
• Austin Pendleton's 2000 play, Orson's Shadow, concerns the 1960 London production of Eugène Ionesco's play Rhinoceros directed by Welles and starring Laurence Olivier. First presented by the Steppenwolf Theatre Company in 2000, the play opened off-Broadway in 2005^[252] and had its European premiere in London in 2015.^[253]
• In Michael Chabon's 2000 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay, the protagonists meet Orson Welles and attend the premiere of Citizen Kane.^[254]
• In the film Fade to Black (2006), a fictional thriller set during Welles's 1948 journey to Rome to star in the movie Black Magic, Danny Huston stars as Welles.^[255]
• Me and Orson Welles (2009), based on Robert Kaplow's 2003 novel,^[256] stars Zac Efron as a teenager who convinces Welles (Christian McKay) to cast him in his 1937 production of Julius Caesar. McKay received numerous accolades for his performance, including a BAFTA nomination.^[257]
• Welles is the central character in "Ian, George, and George," a novelette by Paul Levinson published in 2013 in Analog Science Fiction and Fact magazine.^[258]
• In 2014 comedic actor Jack Black portrayed Welles in the sketch comedy show Drunk History.^[259]
• A 2014 documentary by Chuck Workman, Magician: The Astonishing Life and Work of Orson Welles, was released to critical acclaim.^[260][261]
• Rapper Logic samples Orson Welles twice on his 2020 album No Pressure, with a portion of the August 11, 1946 "Orson Welles Commentaries" episode featured as the outro to the album, titled Obediently Yours.
• Tom Burke portrayed Welles in David Fincher's 2020 film, Mank, which focuses on Herman J. Mankiewicz, the co-writer of Citizen Kane.
• Welles is portrayed by three avatars as he comes to grips with his own death in the 2020 filmopera Orson Rehearsed^[262] by composer director Daron Hagen.^[263]

Notes

References

Further reading

Documentaries about Orson Welles

• Baratier, Jacques, Désordre, 1950.
• Albert and David Maysles, Orson Welles in Spain, 1966.
• Reichenbach, François and Rossif, Frédéric, Orson Welles, 1968 (ORTF, French TV).
• Rozier, Jacques, Vive le cinéma !, 1972 (ORTF, French TV).
• Marienstras, Richard and Romero, Isidro, Shakespeare et Orson Welles, 1973 (French TV).
• Philippe, Claude-Jean and Lefebvre, Monique, Une légende, une vie : Citizen Welles, 1974 (French TV).
• Orson Welles talks with Roger Hill and Hortense Hill, Sedona, Arizona, 1978.
• Megahey, Leslie and Yentob, Alan, The Orson Welles Story, 1982 (Arena, BBC-TV).
• Boutang, Pierre-André and Seligmann, Guy, Orson Welles à la cinémathèque (française), 1983.
• Graver, Gary, Working with Orson Welles, 1993.
• Giorgini, Ciro and Giagni, Gianfranco, Rosabella: La Storia italiana di Orson Welles, 1993.
• Silovic, Vassili with Kodar Oja, Orson Welles : The One-Man Band, 1995.
• Rodriguez, Carlos, Orson Welles en el país de Don Quijote, 2000.
• Petri, Kristian, Brunnen, 2005.
• France, Richard and Fischer, Robert, Citizen America: Orson Welles and the ballad of Isaac Woodard, 2005.
• Rafaelic, Daniel and Rizmaul, Leon, "Druga strana Wellesa", 2005.
• Sedlar, Dominik and Sedlar, Jakov, Searching for Orson, 2006.
• Bernard, Jean-Jacques, Welles angels, 2007.
• Workman, Chuck, Magician: The Astonishing Life and Work of Orson Welles, 2014.
• Kuperberg, Julia and Kuperberg, Clara, This is Orson Welles, 2015.
• Kapnist, Elisabeth, Orson Welles, shadows & light, 2015.
• Mark Cousins, The eyes of Orson Welles, 2018.
• Danny Wu, American: An Odyssey to 1947, 2022.

Documentaries on Citizen Kane (1941)

• The legacy of Citizen Kane (included in the Criterion 50th Anniversary Edition LaserDisc), 1992.
• Reflections on Citizen Kane (included in the Turner Home Entertainment 50th Anniversary Edition VHS), 1991.
• The complete Citizen Kane (BBC-TV), 1991.
• Epstein, Michael, and Thomas Lennon, The Battle Over Citizen Kane (PBS The American Experience, 1996)

Documentaries on It's All True (1942)

• Sganzerla, Rogério, Nem Tudo é Verdade, 1986.
• Krohn, Bill, Meisen, Myron and Wilson, Richard, It's All True: Based on an Unfinished Film by Orson Welles, 1993.

Documentary on Mr. Arkadin (1955)

• Drössler, Stefan, The Labyrinths of Mr. Arkadin, Munich Filmmuseum, 2000.

Documentary on Touch of Evil (1958)

• The Restoration of Touch of Evil, 1998.

Documentary on Chimes at Midnight (1965)

• Berriatúa, Luciano, Las versiones de Campanadas a medianoche, 2012.

Documentaries on The Other Side of the Wind (1970–1976)

• Neville, Morgan, They'll Love Me When I'm Dead, 2018.
• Suffern, Ryan, A Final Cut for Orson: 40 Years in the Making, 2018.

Archival sources

• Guide to the Orson Welles Materials, Lilly Library, Indiana University
• Finding Aid for the Orson Welles – Oja Kodar Papers 1910–1998 (bulk 1965–1985), Special Collections Library, University of Michigan
• Finding Aid for the Richard Wilson – Orson Welles Papers 1930–2000 (bulk 1930–1991), Special Collections Library, University of Michigan
• Finding Aid for the Orson Welles – Chris Welles Feder Collection 1931–2009, Special Collections Library, University of Michigan
• Finding Aid for the Orson Welles – Alessandro Tasca di Cutò Papers 1947–1995, Special Collections Library, University of Michigan
• Finding Aid for the Orson Welles Dead Reckoning/The Deep Papers (1966–1975, bulk 1967–1971), Special Collections Library, University of Michigan

External links

• Orson Welles at IMDb 
• Orson Welles at the Internet Broadway Database
• Orson Welles at AllMovie
• Orson Welles at the TCM Movie Database
• Orson Welles at Rotten Tomatoes
• Orson Welles at Find a Grave
• Orson Welles at UbuWeb
• Wellesnet – Orson Welles Web Resource
• FBI Records: The Vault – George Orson Welles at vault.fbi.gov
• Mercury Theatre on the Air
• "Orson Welles," annotated bibliography at Oxford Bibliographies Online
• "Orson Welles: Bibliography of Materials in the UC Berkeley Libraries". Berkeley: The Library, University of California. April 23, 2000. Archived from the original on August 25, 2018.
• Orson Welles on the Air, 1938–1946 at Indiana University Bloomington