ESR1
Available structures
PDBOrtholog search: PDBe RCSB
Identifiers
AliasesESR1, ER, ESR, ESRA, ESTRR, Era, NR3A1, estrogen receptor 1
External IDsOMIM: 133430 MGI: 1352467 HomoloGene: 47906 GeneCards: ESR1
Orthologs
SpeciesHumanMouse
Entrez

2099

13982

Ensembl

ENSG00000091831

ENSMUSG00000019768

UniProt

P03372

P19785

RefSeq (mRNA)

NM_007956
NM_001302531
NM_001302532
NM_001302533

RefSeq (protein)

NP_001289460
NP_001289461
NP_001289462
NP_031982

Location (UCSC)Chr 6: 151.66 – 152.13 MbChr 10: 4.56 – 4.96 Mb
PubMed search[3][4]
Wikidata
View/Edit HumanView/Edit Mouse

Estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), also known as NR3A1 (nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group A, member 1), is one of two main types of estrogen receptor, a nuclear receptor (mainly found as a chromatin-binding protein[5]) that is activated by the sex hormone estrogen. In humans, ERα is encoded by the gene ESR1 (EStrogen Receptor 1).[6][7][8]

Structure

The estrogen receptor (ER) is a ligand-activated transcription factor composed of several domains important for hormone binding, DNA binding, and activation of transcription.[9] Alternative splicing results in several ESR1 mRNA transcripts, which differ primarily in their 5-prime untranslated regions. The translated receptors show less variability.[10][11]

Ligands

Agonists

Non-selective

Selective

Agonists of ERα selective over ERβ include:

Mixed

Antagonists

Non-selective

Selective

Antagonists of ERα selective over ERβ include:

Affinities

Affinities of estrogen receptor ligands for the ERα and ERβ
LigandOther namesRelative binding affinities (RBA, %)aAbsolute binding affinities (Ki, nM)aAction
ERαERβERαERβ
EstradiolE2; 17β-Estradiol1001000.115 (0.04–0.24)0.15 (0.10–2.08)Estrogen
EstroneE1; 17-Ketoestradiol16.39 (0.7–60)6.5 (1.36–52)0.445 (0.3–1.01)1.75 (0.35–9.24)Estrogen
EstriolE3; 16α-OH-17β-E212.65 (4.03–56)26 (14.0–44.6)0.45 (0.35–1.4)0.7 (0.63–0.7)Estrogen
EstetrolE4; 15α,16α-Di-OH-17β-E24.03.04.919Estrogen
Alfatradiol17α-Estradiol20.5 (7–80.1)8.195 (2–42)0.2–0.520.43–1.2Metabolite
16-Epiestriol16β-Hydroxy-17β-estradiol7.795 (4.94–63)50 ? ?Metabolite
17-Epiestriol16α-Hydroxy-17α-estradiol55.45 (29–103)79–80 ? ?Metabolite
16,17-Epiestriol16β-Hydroxy-17α-estradiol1.013 ? ?Metabolite
2-Hydroxyestradiol2-OH-E222 (7–81)11–352.51.3Metabolite
2-Methoxyestradiol2-MeO-E20.0027–2.01.0 ? ?Metabolite
4-Hydroxyestradiol4-OH-E213 (8–70)7–561.01.9Metabolite
4-Methoxyestradiol4-MeO-E22.01.0 ? ?Metabolite
2-Hydroxyestrone2-OH-E12.0–4.00.2–0.4 ? ?Metabolite
2-Methoxyestrone2-MeO-E1<0.001–<1<1 ? ?Metabolite
4-Hydroxyestrone4-OH-E11.0–2.01.0 ? ?Metabolite
4-Methoxyestrone4-MeO-E1<1<1 ? ?Metabolite
16α-Hydroxyestrone16α-OH-E1; 17-Ketoestriol2.0–6.535 ? ?Metabolite
2-Hydroxyestriol2-OH-E32.01.0 ? ?Metabolite
4-Methoxyestriol4-MeO-E31.01.0 ? ?Metabolite
Estradiol sulfateE2S; Estradiol 3-sulfate<1<1 ? ?Metabolite
Estradiol disulfateEstradiol 3,17β-disulfate0.0004 ? ? ?Metabolite
Estradiol 3-glucuronideE2-3G0.0079 ? ? ?Metabolite
Estradiol 17β-glucuronideE2-17G0.0015 ? ? ?Metabolite
Estradiol 3-gluc. 17β-sulfateE2-3G-17S0.0001 ? ? ?Metabolite
Estrone sulfateE1S; Estrone 3-sulfate<1<1>10>10Metabolite
Estradiol benzoateEB; Estradiol 3-benzoate10 ? ? ?Estrogen
Estradiol 17β-benzoateE2-17B11.332.6 ? ?Estrogen
Estrone methyl etherEstrone 3-methyl ether0.145 ? ? ?Estrogen
ent-Estradiol1-Estradiol1.31–12.349.44–80.07 ? ?Estrogen
Equilin7-Dehydroestrone13 (4.0–28.9)13.0–490.790.36Estrogen
Equilenin6,8-Didehydroestrone2.0–157.0–200.640.62Estrogen
17β-Dihydroequilin7-Dehydro-17β-estradiol7.9–1137.9–1080.090.17Estrogen
17α-Dihydroequilin7-Dehydro-17α-estradiol18.6 (18–41)14–320.240.57Estrogen
17β-Dihydroequilenin6,8-Didehydro-17β-estradiol35–6890–1000.150.20Estrogen
17α-Dihydroequilenin6,8-Didehydro-17α-estradiol20490.500.37Estrogen
Δ8-Estradiol8,9-Dehydro-17β-estradiol68720.150.25Estrogen
Δ8-Estrone8,9-Dehydroestrone19320.520.57Estrogen
EthinylestradiolEE; 17α-Ethynyl-17β-E2120.9 (68.8–480)44.4 (2.0–144)0.02–0.050.29–0.81Estrogen
MestranolEE 3-methyl ether ?2.5 ? ?Estrogen
MoxestrolRU-2858; 11β-Methoxy-EE35–435–200.52.6Estrogen
Methylestradiol17α-Methyl-17β-estradiol7044 ? ?Estrogen
DiethylstilbestrolDES; Stilbestrol129.5 (89.1–468)219.63 (61.2–295)0.040.05Estrogen
HexestrolDihydrodiethylstilbestrol153.6 (31–302)60–2340.060.06Estrogen
DienestrolDehydrostilbestrol37 (20.4–223)56–4040.050.03Estrogen
Benzestrol (B2)–114 ? ? ?Estrogen
ChlorotrianiseneTACE1.74 ?15.30 ?Estrogen
TriphenylethyleneTPE0.074 ? ? ?Estrogen
TriphenylbromoethyleneTPBE2.69 ? ? ?Estrogen
TamoxifenICI-46,4743 (0.1–47)3.33 (0.28–6)3.4–9.692.5SERM
Afimoxifene4-Hydroxytamoxifen; 4-OHT100.1 (1.7–257)10 (0.98–339)2.3 (0.1–3.61)0.04–4.8SERM
Toremifene4-Chlorotamoxifen; 4-CT ? ?7.14–20.315.4SERM
ClomifeneMRL-4125 (19.2–37.2)120.91.2SERM
CyclofenilF-6066; Sexovid151–152243 ? ?SERM
NafoxidineU-11,000A30.9–44160.30.8SERM
Raloxifene–41.2 (7.8–69)5.34 (0.54–16)0.188–0.5220.2SERM
ArzoxifeneLY-353,381 ? ?0.179 ?SERM
LasofoxifeneCP-336,15610.2–16619.00.229 ?SERM
OrmeloxifeneCentchroman ? ?0.313 ?SERM
Levormeloxifene6720-CDRI; NNC-460,0201.551.88 ? ?SERM
OspemifeneDeaminohydroxytoremifene0.82–2.630.59–1.22 ? ?SERM
Bazedoxifene– ? ?0.053 ?SERM
EtacstilGW-56384.3011.5 ? ?SERM
ICI-164,384–63.5 (3.70–97.7)1660.20.08Antiestrogen
FulvestrantICI-182,78043.5 (9.4–325)21.65 (2.05–40.5)0.421.3Antiestrogen
PropylpyrazoletriolPPT49 (10.0–89.1)0.120.4092.8ERα agonist
16α-LE216α-Lactone-17β-estradiol14.6–570.0890.27131ERα agonist
16α-Iodo-E216α-Iodo-17β-estradiol30.22.30 ? ?ERα agonist
MethylpiperidinopyrazoleMPP110.05 ? ?ERα antagonist
DiarylpropionitrileDPN0.12–0.256.6–1832.41.7ERβ agonist
8β-VE28β-Vinyl-17β-estradiol0.3522.0–8312.90.50ERβ agonist
PrinaberelERB-041; WAY-202,0410.2767–72 ? ?ERβ agonist
ERB-196WAY-202,196 ?180 ? ?ERβ agonist
ErteberelSERBA-1; LY-500,307 ? ?2.680.19ERβ agonist
SERBA-2– ? ?14.51.54ERβ agonist
Coumestrol–9.225 (0.0117–94)64.125 (0.41–185)0.14–80.00.07–27.0Xenoestrogen
Genistein–0.445 (0.0012–16)33.42 (0.86–87)2.6–1260.3–12.8Xenoestrogen
Equol–0.2–0.2870.85 (0.10–2.85) ? ?Xenoestrogen
Daidzein–0.07 (0.0018–9.3)0.7865 (0.04–17.1)2.085.3Xenoestrogen
Biochanin A–0.04 (0.022–0.15)0.6225 (0.010–1.2)1748.9Xenoestrogen
Kaempferol–0.07 (0.029–0.10)2.2 (0.002–3.00) ? ?Xenoestrogen
Naringenin–0.0054 (<0.001–0.01)0.15 (0.11–0.33) ? ?Xenoestrogen
8-Prenylnaringenin8-PN4.4 ? ? ?Xenoestrogen
Quercetin–<0.001–0.010.002–0.040 ? ?Xenoestrogen
Ipriflavone–<0.01<0.01 ? ?Xenoestrogen
Miroestrol–0.39 ? ? ?Xenoestrogen
Deoxymiroestrol–2.0 ? ? ?Xenoestrogen
β-Sitosterol–<0.001–0.0875<0.001–0.016 ? ?Xenoestrogen
Resveratrol–<0.001–0.0032 ? ? ?Xenoestrogen
α-Zearalenol–48 (13–52.5) ? ? ?Xenoestrogen
β-Zearalenol–0.6 (0.032–13) ? ? ?Xenoestrogen
Zeranolα-Zearalanol48–111 ? ? ?Xenoestrogen
Taleranolβ-Zearalanol16 (13–17.8)140.80.9Xenoestrogen
ZearalenoneZEN7.68 (2.04–28)9.45 (2.43–31.5) ? ?Xenoestrogen
ZearalanoneZAN0.51 ? ? ?Xenoestrogen
Bisphenol ABPA0.0315 (0.008–1.0)0.135 (0.002–4.23)19535Xenoestrogen
EndosulfanEDS<0.001–<0.01<0.01 ? ?Xenoestrogen
KeponeChlordecone0.0069–0.2 ? ? ?Xenoestrogen
o,p'-DDT–0.0073–0.4 ? ? ?Xenoestrogen
p,p'-DDT–0.03 ? ? ?Xenoestrogen
Methoxychlorp,p'-Dimethoxy-DDT0.01 (<0.001–0.02)0.01–0.13 ? ?Xenoestrogen
HPTEHydroxychlor; p,p'-OH-DDT1.2–1.7 ? ? ?Xenoestrogen
TestosteroneT; 4-Androstenolone<0.0001–<0.01<0.002–0.040>5000>5000Androgen
DihydrotestosteroneDHT; 5α-Androstanolone0.01 (<0.001–0.05)0.0059–0.17221–>500073–1688Androgen
Nandrolone19-Nortestosterone; 19-NT0.010.2376553Androgen
DehydroepiandrosteroneDHEA; Prasterone0.038 (<0.001–0.04)0.019–0.07245–1053163–515Androgen
5-AndrostenediolA5; Androstenediol6173.60.9Androgen
4-Androstenediol–0.50.62319Androgen
4-AndrostenedioneA4; Androstenedione<0.01<0.01>10000>10000Androgen
3α-Androstanediol3α-Adiol0.070.326048Androgen
3β-Androstanediol3β-Adiol3762Androgen
Androstanedione5α-Androstanedione<0.01<0.01>10000>10000Androgen
Etiocholanedione5β-Androstanedione<0.01<0.01>10000>10000Androgen
Methyltestosterone17α-Methyltestosterone<0.0001 ? ? ?Androgen
Ethinyl-3α-androstanediol17α-Ethynyl-3α-adiol4.0<0.07 ? ?Estrogen
Ethinyl-3β-androstanediol17α-Ethynyl-3β-adiol505.6 ? ?Estrogen
ProgesteroneP4; 4-Pregnenedione<0.001–0.6<0.001–0.010 ? ?Progestogen
NorethisteroneNET; 17α-Ethynyl-19-NT0.085 (0.0015–<0.1)0.1 (0.01–0.3)1521084Progestogen
Norethynodrel5(10)-Norethisterone0.5 (0.3–0.7)<0.1–0.221453Progestogen
Tibolone7α-Methylnorethynodrel0.5 (0.45–2.0)0.2–0.076 ? ?Progestogen
Δ4-Tibolone7α-Methylnorethisterone0.069–<0.10.027–<0.1 ? ?Progestogen
3α-Hydroxytibolone–2.5 (1.06–5.0)0.6–0.8 ? ?Progestogen
3β-Hydroxytibolone–1.6 (0.75–1.9)0.070–0.1 ? ?Progestogen
Footnotes: a = (1) Binding affinity values are of the format "median (range)" (# (#–#)), "range" (#–#), or "value" (#) depending on the values available. The full sets of values within the ranges can be found in the Wiki code. (2) Binding affinities were determined via displacement studies in a variety of in-vitro systems with labeled estradiol and human ERα and ERβ proteins (except the ERβ values from Kuiper et al. (1997), which are rat ERβ). Sources: See template page.

Tissue distribution and function

ERα plays a role in the physiological development and function of a variety of organ systems to varying degrees, including the reproductive, central nervous, skeletal, and cardiovascular systems.[12] Accordingly, ERα is widely expressed throughout the body, including the uterus and ovary, male reproductive organs, mammary gland, bone, heart, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, liver, lung, kidney, spleen, and adipose tissue.[12][13][14] The development and function of these tissues is disrupted in animal models lacking active ERα genes, such as the ERα knockout mouse (ERKO), providing a preliminary understanding of ERα function at specific target organs.[12][15]

Uterus and ovary

ERα is essential in the maturation of the female reproductive phenotype. In the absence of ERα, the ERKO mouse develops an adult uterus, indicating that ERα may not mediate the initial growth of the uterus.[12][13] However, ERα plays a role in the completion of this development, and the subsequent function of the tissue.[15] Activation of ERα is known to trigger cell proliferation in the uterus.[14] The uterus of female ERKO mice is hypoplastic, suggesting that ERα mediates mitosis and differentiation in the uterus in response to estrogen stimulation.[13]

Similarly, prepubertal female ERKO mice develop ovaries that are nearly indistinguishable from those of their wildtype counterparts. However, as the ERKO mice mature they progressively present an abnormal ovarian phenotype in both physiology and function.[13][15] Specifically, female ERKO mice develop enlarged ovaries containing hemorrhagic follicular cysts, which also lack the corpus luteum, and therefore do not ovulate.[12][13][15] This adult ovarian phenotype suggests that in the absence of ERα, estrogen is no longer able to perform negative feedback on the hypothalamus, resulting in chronically elevated LH levels and constant ovarian stimulation.[13] These results identify a pivotal role for ERα in the hypothalamus, in addition to its role in the estrogen-driven maturation through theca and interstitial cells of the ovary.[13]

Male reproductive organs

ERα is similarly essential in the maturation and maintenance of the male reproductive phenotype, as male ERKO mice are infertile and present undersized testes.[12][15] The integrity of testicular structures of ERKO mice, such as the seminiferous tubules of the testes and the seminiferous epithelium, declines over time.[12][13] Furthermore, the reproductive performance of male ERKO mice is hindered by abnormalities in sexual physiology and behavior, such as impaired spermatogenesis and loss of intromission and ejaculatory responses.[12][13]

Mammary gland

Estrogen stimulation of ERα is known to stimulate cell proliferation in breast tissue.[14] ERα is thought to be responsible for pubertal development of the adult phenotype, through mediation of mammary gland response to estrogens.[15] This role is consistent with the abnormalities of female ERKO mice: the epithelial ducts of female ERKO mice fail to grow beyond their pre-pubertal length, and lactational structures do not develop.[13] As a result, the functions of the mammary gland—including both lactation and release of prolactin—are greatly impaired in ERKO mice.[15]

Bone

Though its expression in bone is moderate, ERα is known to be responsible for maintenance of bone integrity.[14][15] It is hypothesized that estrogen stimulation of ERα may trigger the release of growth factors, such as epidermal growth factor or insulin-like growth factor-1, which in turn regulate bone development and maintenance.[15][13] Accordingly, male and female ERKO mice exhibit decreased bone length and size.[15][13]

Brain

Estrogen signaling through ERα appears to be responsible for various aspects of central nervous development, such as synaptogenesis and synaptic remodeling.[15] In the brain, ERα is found in hypothalamus, and preoptic area, and arcuate nucleus, all three of which have been linked to reproductive behavior, and the masculinization of the mouse brain appears to take place through ERα function.[12][15] Furthermore, studies in models of psychopathology and neurodegenerative disease states suggest that estrogen receptors mediate the neuroprotective role of estrogen in the brain.[12][14] Finally, ERα appears to mediate positive feedback effects of estrogen on the brain's secretion of GnRH and LH, by way increasing expression of kisspeptin in neurons of the arcuate nucleus and anteroventral periventricular nucleus.[16][17] Although classical studies have suggested that negative feedback effects of estrogen also operate through ERα, female mice lacking ERα in kisspeptin-expressing neurons continue to demonstrate a degree of negative feedback response.[18]

Clinical significance

Estrogen insensitivity syndrome is a very rare condition characterized by a defective ERα that is insensitive to estrogens.[19][20][21][22] The clinical presentation of a female was observed to include absence of breast development and other female secondary sexual characteristics at puberty, hypoplastic uterus, primary amenorrhea, enlarged multicystic ovaries and associated lower abdominal pain, mild hyperandrogenism (manifested as cystic acne), and delayed bone maturation as well as an increased rate of bone turnover.[22] The clinical presentation in a male was reported to include lack of epiphyseal closure, tall stature, osteoporosis, and poor sperm viability.[21] Both individuals were completely insensitive to exogenous estrogen treatment, even with high doses.[21][22]

Genetic polymorphisms in the gene encoding the ERα have been associated with breast cancer in women, gynecomastia in men[23][24] and dysmenorrhea.[25]

In patients with breast cancer, mutations in the gene encoding ERα (ESR1) have been associated with resistance to endocrine therapy, especially aromatase inhibitors.[26]

Coactivators

Coactivators of ER-α include:

Interactions

Estrogen receptor alpha has been shown to interact with:

References

  1. 1 2 3 GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000091831 - Ensembl, May 2017
  2. 1 2 3 GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000019768 - Ensembl, May 2017
  3. ↑ "Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  4. ↑ "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  5. ↑ Dhamad AE, Zhou Z, Zhou J, Du Y (2016-08-02). Picard D (ed.). "Systematic Proteomic Identification of the Heat Shock Proteins (Hsp) that Interact with Estrogen Receptor Alpha (ERα) and Biochemical Characterization of the ERα-Hsp70 Interaction". PLOS ONE. 11 (8): e0160312. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1160312D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0160312. PMC 4970746. PMID 27483141.
  6. ↑ "Entrez Gene: ESR1 estrogen receptor 1".
  7. ↑ Walter P, Green S, Greene G, Krust A, Bornert JM, Jeltsch JM, et al. (December 1985). "Cloning of the human estrogen receptor cDNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 82 (23): 7889–7893. Bibcode:1985PNAS...82.7889W. doi:10.1073/pnas.82.23.7889. PMC 390875. PMID 3865204.
  8. ↑ Greene GL, Gilna P, Waterfield M, Baker A, Hort Y, Shine J (March 1986). "Sequence and expression of human estrogen receptor complementary DNA". Science. 231 (4742): 1150–1154. Bibcode:1986Sci...231.1150G. doi:10.1126/science.3753802. PMID 3753802.
  9. ↑ Dahlman-Wright K, Cavailles V, Fuqua SA, Jordan VC, Katzenellenbogen JA, Korach KS, et al. (December 2006). "International Union of Pharmacology. LXIV. Estrogen receptors". Pharmacological Reviews. 58 (4): 773–781. doi:10.1124/pr.58.4.8. PMID 17132854. S2CID 45996586.
  10. ↑ "Entrez Gene: DBI diazepam binding inhibitor (GABA receptor modulator, acyl-Coenzyme A binding protein)".
  11. ↑ Kos M, Reid G, Denger S, Gannon F (December 2001). "Minireview: genomic organization of the human ERalpha gene promoter region". Molecular Endocrinology. 15 (12): 2057–2063. doi:10.1210/mend.15.12.0731. PMID 11731608.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Bondesson M, Hao R, Lin CY, Williams C, Gustafsson JÅ (February 2015). "Estrogen receptor signaling during vertebrate development". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Gene Regulatory Mechanisms. 1849 (2): 142–151. doi:10.1016/j.bbagrm.2014.06.005. PMC 4269570. PMID 24954179.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Curtis Hewitt S, Couse JF, Korach KS (2000). "Estrogen receptor transcription and transactivation: Estrogen receptor knockout mice: what their phenotypes reveal about mechanisms of estrogen action". Breast Cancer Research. 2 (5): 345–352. doi:10.1186/bcr79. PMC 138656. PMID 11250727.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Paterni I, Granchi C, Katzenellenbogen JA, Minutolo F (November 2014). "Estrogen receptors alpha (ERα) and beta (ERβ): subtype-selective ligands and clinical potential". Steroids. 90: 13–29. doi:10.1016/j.steroids.2014.06.012. PMC 4192010. PMID 24971815.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Lee HR, Kim TH, Choi KC (June 2012). "Functions and physiological roles of two types of estrogen receptors, ERα and ERβ, identified by estrogen receptor knockout mouse". Laboratory Animal Research. 28 (2): 71–76. doi:10.5625/lar.2012.28.2.71. PMC 3389841. PMID 22787479.
  16. ↑ Clarkson J (April 2013). "Effects of estradiol on kisspeptin neurons during puberty". Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 34 (2): 120–131. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2013.02.002. PMID 23500175. S2CID 26118271.
  17. ↑ Moenter SM, Chu Z, Christian CA (March 2009). "Neurobiological mechanisms underlying oestradiol negative and positive feedback regulation of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone neurones". Journal of Neuroendocrinology. 21 (4): 327–333. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2009.01826.x. PMC 2738426. PMID 19207821.
  18. ↑ Plant TM (August 2015). "60 YEARS OF NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY: The hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis". The Journal of Endocrinology. 226 (2): T41–T54. doi:10.1530/JOE-15-0113. PMC 4498991. PMID 25901041.
  19. ↑ Jameson JL, De Groot LJ (February 2015). Endocrinology: Adult and Pediatric. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 238–. ISBN 978-0-323-32195-2.
  20. ↑ Korach KS, Couse JF, Curtis SW, Washburn TF, Lindzey J, Kimbro KS, et al. (1996). "Estrogen receptor gene disruption: molecular characterization and experimental and clinical phenotypes". Recent Progress in Hormone Research. 51: 159–86, discussion 186–8. PMID 8701078.
  21. 1 2 3 Smith EP, Boyd J, Frank GR, Takahashi H, Cohen RM, Specker B, et al. (October 1994). "Estrogen resistance caused by a mutation in the estrogen-receptor gene in a man". The New England Journal of Medicine. 331 (16): 1056–1061. doi:10.1056/NEJM199410203311604. PMID 8090165.
  22. 1 2 3 Quaynor SD, Stradtman EW, Kim HG, Shen Y, Chorich LP, Schreihofer DA, Layman LC (July 2013). "Delayed puberty and estrogen resistance in a woman with estrogen receptor α variant". The New England Journal of Medicine. 369 (2): 164–171. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1303611. PMC 3823379. PMID 23841731.
  23. ↑ Jahandoost S, Farhanghian P, Abbasi S (2017). "The Effects of Sex Protein Receptors and Sex Steroid Hormone Gene Polymorphisms on Breast Cancer Risk". Journal of the National Medical Association. 109 (2): 126–138. doi:10.1016/j.jnma.2017.02.003. PMID 28599754.
  24. ↑ Eren E, Edgunlu T, Korkmaz HA, Cakir ED, Demir K, Cetin ES, Celik SK (May 2014). "Genetic variants of estrogen beta and leptin receptors may cause gynecomastia in adolescent". Gene. 541 (2): 101–106. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2014.03.013. PMID 24625355.
  25. ↑ Woo HY, Kim KH, Lim SW (February 2010). "Estrogen receptor 1, glutathione S-transferase P1, glutathione S-transferase M1, and glutathione S-transferase T1 genes with dysmenorrhea in Korean female adolescents". The Korean Journal of Laboratory Medicine. 30 (1): 76–83. doi:10.3343/kjlm.2010.30.1.76. PMID 20197727.
  26. ↑ Henry NL, Somerfield MR, Dayao Z, Elias A, Kalinsky K, McShane LM, et al. (September 2022). "Biomarkers for Systemic Therapy in Metastatic Breast Cancer: ASCO Guideline Update". Journal of Clinical Oncology. 40 (27): 3205–3221. doi:10.1200/JCO.22.01063. PMID 35759724.
  27. ↑ Shang Y, Brown M (March 2002). "Molecular determinants for the tissue specificity of SERMs". Science. 295 (5564): 2465–2468. Bibcode:2002Sci...295.2465S. doi:10.1126/science.1068537. PMID 11923541. S2CID 30634073.
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