Kazakhs in China
中国哈萨克族 (Chinese)
جۇڭگو قازاقتارى (Kazakh)
Total population
1,462,588
Regions with significant populations
Xinjiang (Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Aksai Kazakh Autonomous County, Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County, Mori Kazakh Autonomous County)
Languages
Kazakh, Russian, Mandarin
Religion
Sunni Islam
Related ethnic groups
Turkic peoples
Kazakhs in China
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese中国哈萨克族
Traditional Chinese中國哈薩克族
Kazakh name
Kazakhجۇڭگو قازاقتارى
Қытайда тұратын қазақтар

Kazakhs are a Turkic ethnic group and one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. There is one Kazakh autonomous prefecture – Ili in Xinjiang – and three Kazakh autonomous counties – Aksay in Gansu, and Barkol and Mori in Xinjiang.

History

Kazakh nomads in the 19th century

During the fall of the Dzungar Khanate in the mid-18th century, the Manchus massacred the native Dzungar Oirat Mongols of Dzungaria (northern Xinjiang Province) in the Dzungar genocide, and afterwards colonized the depopulated area with immigrants from many parts of their empire. Among the peoples who moved into the depopulated Dzungaria were the Kazakhs from the Kazakh Khanates.[1]

In the 19th century, the advance of the Russian Empire troops pushed the Kazakhs to neighboring countries. Russian settlers on traditional Kazakh land drove many over the border to China, causing their population to increase in China.[2] Comparatively, the Kazakhs received more benefits in the Chinese-controlled areas than the Russian-controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the nomadic Kazakhs, which led the Russians to believe that the Kazakhs would be a liability in any conflict against China. The Kazakhs were certain that in an upcoming war, China would defeat Russia.[3]

In the early 20th century, Kazakhs fled to China to escape Russian persecution and slaughter during the Basmachi movement in 1916.[4] During the Russian Revolution, when Muslims faced tsarist conscription, Xinjiang again became a sanctuary for Kazakhs fleeing Russia.[5] During the 1920s, hundreds of thousands of Kazakh nomads moved from Soviet Kazakhstan to Xinjiang to escape Soviet persecution, famine,[note 1] violence, and forced sedentarization.[6] Kazakhs that moved to China at first fought for the Soviet Communist-backed Uyghur Second East Turkestan Republic but then defected to the Republic of China to fight against the Second East Turkestan Republic and Soviets in the Ili Rebellion (1944–1949)

Toops estimated that 326,000 Kazakhs, 65,000 Kirghiz, 92,000 Hui, 187,000 Han, and 2,984,000 Uyghur (totaling 3,730,000) lived in Xinjiang in 1941. Hoppe estimated that 4,334,000 people lived in Xinjiang in 1949.[7]

Kazakh exodus and tribal conflict

A Kazakh chief named Khaisan was skinned alive and his heart cut out of his chest by the Oirat Mongol Ja Lama. His and another Kazakh's skin were used as a religious implement.[8] The skins were found in Khaisan's yurt in Muunjaviin Ulaan on 8 February 1914 by Cossacks under Captain Bulatov.[9][10] A White Guard soldier's heart was eaten by the Mongol Choijon Lama. Mongol banners were sprinkled with blood from the hearts of Russian White Guard and Chinese, according to A. V. Burdukov.[11][12]

Mongol Oirat Kalmyk leader Ja Lama skinned a Kazakh alive.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]

The Kalmyk Oirat Mongol Ja Lama Dambijatsan skinned the Kazakh Akynbek Tokyluly alive after fighting the Kerei Kazakhs in the Altai mountains. The Kazakhs claim the Kalmyk Oirats killed Kazakh children and fed them to dogs and birds and tried to kidnap Kazakh girls and force convert Kazakhs to Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism from Islam.[21][22] The skin is now in the National Museum in Prague, Czech republic after a Czech soldier, Vaclav Kopetsky of the Czechslovak legion obtained the flayed skin and his great grandson gave it to the museum.[23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49]

Owen Lattimore described Mongol Sandagdorjiyn Magsarjav (1877–1927) as "a strange, romantic and sometimes savage figure". Magsarjav had served under Ungern-Sternberg. In Uriankhai, Kazakh bandits who were captured had their hearts cut out and sacrificed by Magsarjav.[50]

In 1936, after Sheng Shicai expelled 30,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai, Hui Chinese led by General Ma Bufang massacred Kazakhs, until there were only 135 of them left.[51]

Claims by other ethnic groups against Kazakhs

Being forced to migrate from Northern Xinjiang to the Kokonor plateau in Qinghai, the nomadic Kazakhs resorted to plundering and robbing as they passed through Gansu and northern Xinjiang. In 1941, General Ma Bufang agreed to settle the Kazakhs in several pasturelands in an attempt to avoid further conflicts and quell aggressions. However, with the Kokonor plateau being home to Hui, Tibetans, and Kazakhs, the tribes continued to periodically engage in conflict with each other.[52][53] Hisao Kimura, a Japanese spy, cited a Tibetan Lama telling him that Kazakhs were enemies of the Tibetans: "This land, is very unsettled compared with Inner Mongolia. To the west, the Kazakhs persecute our people, and we are powerless to stop them."[54] The Kazakhs who migrated to Iran and Pakistan via India and Tibet moved to Turkey in the 1950s, with some becoming guest workers in Germany in the 1960s.[55]

Deed Mongols in the Tayijinar banner of Qinghai were slaughtered by Kazakhs invading from Xinjiang in 1943.[56]

During his travels in Qinghai, Office of Strategic Services agent Leonard Francis Clark reported that local Muslims told him about Kazakhs invading Tibet via the Nan Shan mountains in Xinjiang over the course of eight years in the 1940s. According to them, the Kazakhs were responsible for massacring 8,000 Buddhist Mongols during that period and claimed this was only possible due to the Chinese Nationalist Government disarming the Mongols. Further inquiries did not lead to more information and when Clark questioned missionaries in Lanzhou, they only confirmed occasional raids from a few stray bands of Kazakhs over the last years.[57]

Kazakh claims against other ethnic groups

From 1934 to 1938, Qumil Elisqan led about 18,000 Kerey Kazakhs to migrate to Gansu and Qinghai.[58] Over the span of 2 years of battles, 5,000 Kazakhs were killed by Hui Muslim Chinese and Tibetans in Gansu. Led by Eliskhan Batur Elifuglu (1919–1943), the 13,000 survivors fled towards India in September 1940.[59]

Tibetan troops robbed and killed Kazakhs 400 miles east of Lhasa at Chamdo when the Kazakhs were entering Tibet.[60][59] To stop the migrants, a Tibetan cavalry numbering 1,000 attacked and fought the Kazakhs for three days in north Tibet, but ultimately lost.[59] Afterwards, the Tibetan government sent the Kazakhs to the Ladakh region of Kashmir in British India.[61] When they arrived at the Kashmir border, many Kazakhs died when the British ordered Indian guards to shoot. Once it was realized that they were civilians, the 3,039 surviving Kazakhs were let into India via Chuchul checkpoint in September 1941. Over these 3 years, 15,000 Kazakhs were killed.[59]

When they were debriefed by British officials, the Kazakhs accused Tibetans and Tungans (Hui Chinese) of attacking them in Gansu, Qinghai, and Tibet.[62][63] The Kazakhs said they were fleeing from the Soviets and the Soviet-backed warlord Sheng Shicai in Xinjiang. They accused Tibetan raiders of killing Kenzhebay, a relative of Elisqan, and accused the Hui-ruled Qinghai government of ignoring the murder. This incited them to move out of Qinghai towards India and Tibet. The Kazakhs accused Tibetan Qulïq people of being warlike and attacking the Kazakhs, and claimed that Kazakhs led by Elisqan had defeated them. The Kazakhs then accused a Hui Muslim (Dungan) called Fulušan of leading an assault with Mongol and Tibetan troops against the Kazakhs in Altïnšöke (Алтыншёке).[64][65][66]

Upon crossing the border, however, the Kazakhs were unwelcome in Kashmir, and were confined to an open mountainous camp on the outskirts of Muzaffarabad. Due to poor living conditions and the monsoon rains, more Kazakhs and their livestock died daily. In April 1942, with the help of local Muslims, the Kazakhs were allowed to move to Gari Habibullah, and then Ternova village, where Indian Muslims hosted them. Nevertheless, additional Kazakhs died from illness, poor diet, and the warm climate. The remaining Kazakhs were granted residence permits, and with the help of regional nawabs, resettled elsewhere, with most eventually ending up in Pakistan after the Partition of India in 1947.[59]

Distribution

Kazakh autonomous prefectures and counties in China.

By province

By county

(Only includes counties or county-equivalents containing >1% of county population.)

County-level distribution of Kazakhs (2000)
Сounty/City% KazakhKazakh popTotal pop
Xinjiang Uyghur autonomous region6.741,245,02318,459,511
Aksay Kazakh autonomous county30.52,7128,891
Ürümqi city2.3448,7722,081,834
Tianshan district1.778,354471,432
Saybag district1.276,135482,235
Xinshi district1.064,005379,220
Dongshan district1.961,979100,796
Ürümqi county8.0026,278328,536
Karamay city3.679,919270,232
Dushanzi district4.242,15050,732
Karamay district3.495,079145,452
Baijiantan district3.352,15164,297
Urko district5.535399,751
Hami city8.7643,104492,096
Yizhou district2.7110,546388,714
Barkol Kazakh autonomous county34.0129,23685,964
Yiwu county19.073,32217,418
Changji Hui autonomous prefecture7.98119,9421,503,097
Changji city4.3716,919387,169
Fukang city7.8311,984152,965
Midong district1.943,515180,952
Hutubi county10.0321,118210,643
Manas county9.6216,410170,533
Qitai county10.0720,629204,796
Jimsar county8.069,501117,867
Mori Kazakh autonomous county25.4119,86678,172
Bortala Mongol autonomous prefecture9.1438,744424,040
Bole city7.1015,955224,869
Jinghe county8.2711,048133,530
Wenquan county17.8911,74165,641
Ili Kazakh autonomous prefecture1.785,077285,299
Kuytun city1.785,077285,299
Ili prefecture direct-controlled territories22.55469,6342,082,577
Ghulja city4.8117,205357,519
Ghulja county10.3039,745385,829
Qapqal Xibe autonomous county20.0032,363161,834
Huocheng county7.9626,519333,013
Gongliu county29.6945,450153,100
Xinyuan county43.43117,195269,842
Zhaosu county48.4370,242145,027
Tekes county42.2556,571133,900
Nilka county45.1564,344142,513
Tacheng prefecture24.21216,020892,397
Tacheng city15.5123,144149,210
Usu city9.9318,907190,359
Emin county33.4259,586178,309
Shawan county16.2330,621188,715
Toli county68.9855,10279,882
Yumin county32.4215,60948,147
Hoboksar Mongol autonomous county22.5913,05157,775
Altay prefecture51.38288,612561,667
Altay city36.8065,693178,510
Burqin county57.3135,32461,633
Koktokay county69.6856,43380,986
Burultokay county31.8624,79377,830
Kaba county59.7943,88973,403
Qinggil county75.6140,70953,843
Jiminay county61.3921,77135,462

Culture

Kazakh yurts

Some Kazakhs are nomadic herders and raise sheep, goats, cattle, and horses. These nomadic Kazakhs migrate seasonally in search of pasture for their animals. During the summer the Kazakhs live in yurts, while in winter they settle and live in modest houses made of adobe or cement blocks. Others live in urban areas and tend to be highly educated and hold much influence in integrated communities. The Islam practiced by the Kazakhs in China contains many elements of shamanism, ancestor worship, and other traditional beliefs and practices.[67]

Notable people

See also

Notes

References

  1. ↑ Smagulova, Anar. "XVIII – XIX Centuries. In the Manuscripts of teh Kazakhs of China". East Kazakhstan State University. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ↑ Alexander Douglas Mitchell Carruthers; Jack Humphrey Miller (1914). Unknown Mongolia: A Record of Travel and Exploration in North-west Mongolia and Dzungaria. Hutchinson & Company. p. 345.
  3. ↑ Marshall, Alex (22 November 2006). The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860–1917. Routledge. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-1-134-25379-1.
  4. ↑ Sydykova, Zamira (20 January 2016). "Commemorating the 1916 Massacres in Kyrgyzstan? Russia Sees a Western Plot". The Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst.
  5. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (9 October 1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. CUP Archive. pp. 17–. ISBN 978-0-521-25514-1.
  6. ↑ Genina, Anna (2015). Claiming Ancestral Homelandsː Mongolian Kazakh migration in Inner Asia (PDF) (A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Anthropology) in The University of Michigan). p. 113.
  7. ↑ Bellér-Hann, Ildikó (2008). Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. pp. 64–. ISBN 978-90-04-16675-2.
  8. ↑ Lattimore, Owen; Nachukdorji, Sh (1955). "THE PROBLEM OF PERSONALITY: SKETCHES OF TWO CAREERS". Nationalism and Revolution in Mongolia. Brill Archive. p. 61.
  9. ↑ Croner, Don (5 June 2009). "Russia – Astrakhan – Dambijantsan – Pestelya Street". Don Croner. Archived from the original on 5 September 2012.
  10. ↑ Croner, Don (13 May 2008). "Mongolia – Khovd Aimag – Ja Lama and the Siege of Khovd".
  11. ↑ Kuzmin, Sergius L. (2011). Terentyev, Andrey (ed.). Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation. Dmitry Bennett. Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. p. 125. ISBN 978-9380359472. Archived from the original on 4 February 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2022.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  12. ↑ "Life of Ja Lama". Tibetan Buddhist Encyclopedia.
  13. ↑ Anglo-Mongolian Society (1983). Journal of the Anglo-Mongolian Society, Volumes 8-1. p. 35. On one occasion , a man from Halh came to Ja Lama's camp claiming to be his brother , and demanding respect for this reason ... The Diluv Hutagt tells one story of how a Kazakh bandit was skinned alive by Dambiijantsan , and even gives ...
  14. ↑ Kaplan, Edward H.; Whisenhunt, Donald W.; Schwarz, Henry G., eds. (1994). Opuscula Altaica: Essays Presented in Honor of Henry Schwarz. Vol. 19 of Studies on East Asia (illustrated ed.). Western Washington. p. 159. ISBN 0914584197. ... the chest of a Kazakh chieftain be cut open and his heart torn out , after which the skin was flayed from his body . ... Vladimirtsov met Ja Lama in Astrakhan in September 1917.62 On March 7, 1914 , the Russian diplomatic agent in ...
  15. ↑ Kuzmin, Sergius L. (2011). Terentyev, Andrey (ed.). Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation. Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. p. 125. ISBN 978-9380359472. and took the skin off a Kazakh; Choijon Lama ate the heart of a White Guard soldier;
  16. ↑ Australian National University. Institute of Advanced Studies (2000). East Asian History, Nummers 19-20. Institute of Advanced Studies, Australian National University. p. 81. For the Volga Kalmyk lama Dambijangčan ( Dambijatsan ; d . 1922 ) and his Page ( 127 ) political role in the Autonomous Government period , see Bawden 1989 , pp . 192 , 197 , 198 , 199 , 251–4 . Cf. also Lattimore 1955 , pp.9 ...
  17. ↑ https://www.eastasianhistory.org/sites/default/files/article-content/19/EAH19_03.pdf
  18. ↑ Väärtnöu, Vello. "Ja Lama with his Legends by Vello Vaartnou".
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  21. ↑ "ТІРІДЕЙ СОЙЫЛҒАН ҚАЗАҚТЫҢ ҚАСІРЕТІ". Абай-Ақпарат. 18 April 2016.
  22. ↑ "تىرىدەي سويىلعان قازاقتىڭ قاسىرەتى". اباي-اقپارات. 18 April 2016.
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  36. ↑ "Казнь "красный тюльпан" и другие шокирующие факты о войне в Афганстане. "Красный тюльпан" (5 фото) Афганистан красный тюльпан пытка". valenteshop.ru. 30 September 2020.
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  47. ↑ "Tio värsta avrättningar i den antika världen Den värsta tortyren för kvinnor. Video om värsta avrättningar i världen". vit-vladimir.ru. 19 July 2020.
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  50. ↑ Dillon, Michael (2019). Mongolia: A Political History of the Land and its People. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 55. ISBN 978-1788316958.
  51. ↑ "Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science". American Academy of Political and Social Science. A.L. Hummel. 277: 152. 1951. Retrieved 28 June 2010. A group of Kazakhs, originally numbering over 20000 people when expelled from Sinkiang by Sheng Shih-ts'ai in 1936, was reduced, after repeated massacres by their Chinese coreligionists under Ma Pu-fang, to a scattered 135 people.
  52. ↑ Lin, Hsaio-ting (2011). Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928–49. Contemporary Chinese Studies Series. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0774859882. The Kazakhs were plundering and robbing on the Tibetan-Kokonor plateau in Qinghai as they came through Gansu and northern Xinjiang. There were over 7,000 of them between 1938-1941. On the Kokonor plateau, Hui (Tungans), Tibetans and Kazakhs continued to battle each other despite the Kazkah nomads being settled in demarcated pasturelands under Ma Bufang's watch in 1941.
  53. ↑ Hsaio-ting Lin (1 January 2011). Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928–49. UBC Press. pp. 112–. ISBN 978-0-7748-5988-2.
  54. ↑ Kimura, Hisao; Berry, Scott (1990). Berry, Scott (ed.). Japanese Agent in Tibet: My Ten Years of Travel in Disguise. Contributor Scott Berry (illustrated ed.). Serindia Publications, Inc. p. 58. ISBN 0906026245.
  55. ↑ Sheryazdanova, Kamilla (2013). "Chapter 8 The Role and Place of Migration and Diaspora's Policy in Bilateral Relations Between Kazakhstan and Germany". In Banerjee, Santo; Erçetin, Şefika Şule (eds.). Chaos, Complexity and Leadership 2012. Springer Proceedings in Complexity (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 50, 51. ISBN 978-9400773622. Archived from the original on 3 August 2021.
  56. ↑ Anglo-Mongolian Society (1983). Journal of the Anglo-Mongolian Society, Volumes 8-1. p. 48. The Deed8 Mongols (meaning 'Mongols living in an upper position') came from Xinjiang around 300 years ago and herded in the vast area of central and northwest Qinghai in the old Tayijinar Banner. Then, in the year 1943, many Kazakh swept down from Xinjiang. In pitched battles, the Mongols were outnumbered and many killed. Survivors fled to such places as Tibet, Gansu, the Qinghai lake vicinity, and Duland. Later, most of the Kazakh returned to Xinjiang and in 1959, only some of the previous 1,500 or so Mongols returned to Urtmören9. In 1983, the remaining Kazakh moved to Xinjiang. (In the past two years, about some 200–400 have returned to the Golmud administrative district, apparently dissatisfied with conditions in Xinjiang.)10
  57. ↑ Clark, Leonard Francis (1954). The Marching Wind. Funk & Wagnalls. pp. 317–318.
  58. ↑ Benson, Linda (1988). The Kazaks of China: Essays on an Ethnic Minority. Ubsaliensis S. Academiae. p. 195. ISBN 978-91-554-2255-4.
  59. 1 2 3 4 5 Devlet, Nadir (2004). "Studies in the Politics, History and Culture of Turkic Peoples" (PDF). Istanbul: Yeditepe University. pp. 191, 192 – via academia.edu.
  60. ↑ Blackwood's Magazine. William Blackwood. 1948. p. 407.
  61. ↑ Hsaio-ting Lin (1 January 2011). Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928–49. UBC Press. pp. 231–. ISBN 978-0-7748-5988-2.
  62. ↑ ZINDIE. I. (June 1948). "The Wanderers.". Blackwood's Magazine, Volume 236. Vol. 263. pp. 401–409.
  63. ↑ East Asian History, Issues 19-22. Contributor Australian National University. Institute of Advanced Studies. Institute of Advanced Studies, Australian National University. 2000. p. 82.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  64. ↑ Benson, Linda (1988). Benson, Linda; Svanberg, Ingvar (eds.). The Kazaks of China: Essays on an Ethnic Minority. Vol. 5 of Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis: Studia multiethnica Upsaliensia. Contributors Linda Benson, Ingvar Svanberg (illustrated ed.). Ubsaliensis S. Academiae. pp. 193, 195. ISBN 9155422551.
  65. ↑ Казахи Китая: очерки по этническому меньшинству. Vol. 3 of История Казахстана в западных источниках XII-XX в.в. Linda Benson, Ingvar Svanberg. Санат. 2005. p. 180. ISBN 9965664331. ... разгневанный Елисхан переселился подальше от Цинхая и разместился в местности, именуемой Алтыншёке (Altinsoke), расположенной за пределами Цинхая ...{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  66. ↑ @mediyafiltr (29 June 2021). "Казахи Кашмира, 1953 год. Фото из журнала National Geographic" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
  67. ↑ Elliot, Sheila Hollihan (2006). Muslims in China. Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers. pp. 62–63. ISBN 1-59084-880-2.
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