ZouXian
Traditional Chinese走線
Simplified Chinese走线

Zouxian is the phenomenon of Chinese migrants entering the United States through its southern border with Mexico.[1][2] The phenomenon became more prominent in the early 2020s.[3] In 2021, at the Darién gap, the Panamanian police counted 200 Chinese migrants; in contrast, in the first half of 2022, close to 9,000 Chinese migrants made the crossing.[2]

Historical context

Chinese immigration to the United States first emerged in the mid-19th century, largely in the Western U.S., brought on by domestic political and economic instability.[4] As of 2004, over four million ethnic Chinese citizens were living in Canada and the United States, comprising the largest and third largest minority groups, respectively.[5] This early wave of immigration contributed significantly to the growth of Chinese ethnic enclaves and the establishment of ‘Chinatown’ communities within Los Angeles and New York,[6] which has led to the United States emerging as the preferred destination for Chinese immigrants.[7]

Relations between the United States and the People’s Republic of China were only normalised in 1979.[8] While this subsequently granted a legal entry point for those emigrating from China, the number of immigrants allowed to enter the U.S. is subject to immigration quotas.[9] These quotas prioritise Chinese citizens with financial and familial ties to the United States and are still restrictive, leaving many with no legal opportunity to enter the country.[10] This first became an issue in the 1980s, with political and economic liberalisation in China leading to a sharp increase in chain migration as Chinese families sought to reunite.[11]

People smuggling in Latin America

The Chinese diaspora in Latin and South America, like the United States, has existed since the 19th century owing to labour shortages in the Americas.[12] Mexico, in particular, encouraged Chinese immigration, signing a commercial treaty in 1899 that allowed Chinese citizens to run enterprises in Mexico, some of which would become involved in people smuggling.[13] Chinese shell companies in Mexico can issue fake work visas for immigrants to allow access to the U.S. border.[14]

Chinese people smuggling developed mainly from a decentralised platform utilising intermediaries and independent businesses to engage in their operations.[15] Mexican people smugglers and human traffickers are the subcontractors used to guide Chinese immigrants through the U.S. border.[16] Where payment through coyotes has often manifested in indentured servitude, Chinese people smuggling has historically adopted a system utilising family located in the United States to ensure full payment.[17]

Development

Since the COVID-19 outbreak, Chinese citizens have more frequently discussed leaving China on China’s internet.[18]

Even after China lifted its COVID restrictions, the inclination towards “Zouxian” has persisted. According to the U.S. Border Patrol, between January and September 2023, there were 21,870 Chinese illegal immigration reports, which was 13% higher than in 2022.[19] Whether the phenomenon of “Zouxian” will form a new pattern for Chinese undocumented immigration to the U.S. largely depends on the further estimation of the effect of returning to U.S.C. Title 8 on the rate of approval for Chinese asylum seekers and more precise disclosure of the life risk of jungle crossing.[20]

Route

The difficulty in reaching the United States legally by obtaining a visa has meant that some Chinese migrants have attempted to get there through other means. For most, flying to Ecuador, where Chinese citizens are not required to purchase a visa, has been the only option.[2] The inflated costs from Ecuador to the United States indicate that whilst some migrants come from working-class backgrounds, many are middle-class migrants hoping to leave China.[21]

Upon reaching Ecuador, migrants usually cross eight countries in Latin and Central America.[21] The past decade has witnessed an increase in Chinese criminal groups operating in Latin America, specialising in four activities: trafficking fentanyl, laundering money, illegal wildlife trade, and migrant smuggling.[20] For most Chinese migrants, contacting a snakehead (people smuggler) within these criminal organisations has become a part of attempting the journey. Snakeheads employ local guides to assist migrants where hazards are present.[2] There is a risk of the snakehead abandoning them or demanding more money midway through the journey.[2] Migrants use social media platforms such as Telegram to share information with each other.[22] Some do not survive the journey[18] as they encounter hunger and robbery or kidnapping by local gangs.[23]

Entering the United States

Once reaching the border, the immigrants face little opposition to seeking asylum, with the refusal rate of asylum seekers from China into the U.S. being 12%.[24] This is contrasted by the level of Visa application refusals being approximately 30%, contributing to the statistic that U.S. Visa refusals are 90% below pre-pandemic levels.[25] When in the U.S., many move to Chinese districts in large cities such as San Francisco and New York.[18] Through the use of social media, friends, and family connections, many are able to find jobs that are cash-in-hand, forgoing the need for a green card or Visa.[26]

Causes

The increasing asylum-seeking through “Zouxian” is linked closely with the repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic. Economic frustrations over China’s political reform have eroded the social confidence of some Chinese people, particularly in the lower-class hierarchy.

Political factors

A key driver of “Zouxian” resulted from people’s dissatisfaction with China’s authoritarian governance. Due to the implementation of the “Zero-COVID” policy, Chinese households experienced widespread lockdowns, compulsory mass testing, and concentrated treatment of patients, which resulted in social problems like food shortages, family separations, and unequal healthcare access.[27] Ultimately, following the catastrophic fire in Urumqi, accumulated public resentment outburst on October 25, 2022, in the form of street protests, calling for an end to COVID restrictions, free elections and the resignation of Xi Jinping.[28] A common expression among the runners was their discontent toward the absence of free speech and religion, which intensified due to the COVID-19 pandemic’s constraints.[27] Some runners claimed to face different degrees of governmental oppression for their speeches during COVID regulation, including university expulsion,[29] police interrogation[18] and imprisonment.[30] Many runners attributed their determination to “Zouxian” based on their COVID-19 political witness and experiences.[31] 

Economic factors

Data from June 2023 suggest that real income growth remained below the inflation rate, with the youth unemployment rate reaching a new high of 20.4%. Subdued private investment continued in 2022, and the property market overall has depressed.[32] The runners expressed their despair of an economic recovery.[33] Young runners complained about the asymmetrically heavy workload versus poor salary.[34] Another recurring demographic is small business owners, who incurred a high revenue deduction from COVID restrictions and thus became pessimistic about future business opportunities in China.[25] Most of the runners are aware that they are unlikely to obtain well-paying positions in the short run as asylum seekers. However, they believe the current toil will be worth paying if the next generation can grow with greater prosperity.[29][35]

Social media

In recent years, social media has played a pivotal role in various movements in China.[36] Chinese undocumented immigration through the U.S. Southwest border is not a COVID-exclusive phenomenon.[37] Traversing the Darién Gap to reach Panama has been a COVID-inspired expedient. In obtaining a travel visa for most Chinese, the China-Ecuador visa-free agreement gave rise to the rationale of making Ecuador the landing area for the runners.[38] Sharing and instruction transmission on media platforms, namely Telegram, TikTok, Twitter and YouTube, played a crucial role in alleviating the public's anxiety.[25]


References

  1. ↑ "Fleeing China's Covid lockdowns for the US - through a Central American jungle". BBC News. 2022-12-21. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 "Return to China? Xing would rather die in the jungle". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  3. ↑ Castañeda, C.B. and Rivas, N.T., (2021) ‘Central American Caravans: A New Model of Migration?’ in C.C. González and J.E. Ocampo Human Displacement from a Global South Perspective: Migration Dynamics in Latin America, Africa and the Middle East. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, pp.13-39. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-64819-0
  4. ↑ Hooper, K. and Batalova, J., 2015. Chinese immigrants in the United States. Migration Policy Institute, 28, pp.1-13.
  5. ↑ Holland, K.M., 2007. A history of Chinese immigration in the United States and Canada. American Review of Canadian Studies, 37(2), pp.150-160.
  6. ↑ Zhou, M. and Lee, R., 2013. Transnationalism and community building: Chinese immigrant organizations in the United States. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 647(1), pp.22-49.
  7. ↑ Zhou, M. and Liu, H., 2016. Homeland engagement and host-society integration: A comparative study of new Chinese immigrants in the United States and Singapore. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 57(1-2), pp.30-52.
  8. ↑ Salvini, G., 2017. The Relations Between the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the United States (US). Understanding China Today: An Exploration of Politics, Economics, Society, and International Relations, pp.95-113.
  9. ↑ Zhang, S. and Chin, K.L., 2001, December. Chinese human smuggling in the United States of America. In Forum on Crime and Society (Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 31-52).
  10. ↑ Hsin, A. and Aptekar, S., 2022. The violence of asylum: The case of undocumented Chinese migration to the United States. Social Forces, 100(3), pp.1195-1217.
  11. ↑ Wang, J.Z., 2001. Illegal Chinese immigration into the United States: A preliminary factor analysis. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 45(3), pp.345-355
  12. ↑ Chang-Rodríguez, E., 1958. Chinese labor migration into Latin America in the nineteenth century. Revista de Historia de América, (46), pp.375-397.
  13. ↑ Romero, R.C., 2003. The dragon in Big Lusong: Chinese immigration and settlement in Mexico, 1882–1940. University of California, Los Angeles.
  14. ↑ Martin, P. and Miller, M., 2000. Smuggling and trafficking: a conference report.
  15. ↑ Keefe, P.R., 2009. Snakeheads and smuggling: The dynamics of illegal Chinese immigration. World Policy Journal, 26(1), pp.33-44.
  16. ↑ Kyle, D. and Liang, Z., 2001. Migration merchants: human smuggling from Ecuador and China.
  17. ↑ Wang, J.Z., 2001. Illegal Chinese immigration into the United States: A preliminary factor analysis. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 45(3), pp.345-355 ibid
  18. 1 2 3 4 "雨林、抢匪以及"美国梦"：90后中国人偷渡"润美"的新路线". BBC News 中文 (in Simplified Chinese). 2023-01-19. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  19. ↑ "中国人偷渡美国猛增 暴翻13倍". RFI - 法国国际广播电台 (in Simplified Chinese). 2023-11-01. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  20. 1 2 "Triads, Snakeheads, and Flying Money: The Underworld of Chinese Criminal Networks in Latin America and the Caribbean". Diálogo Américas. 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  21. 1 2 "Why Are More and More Chinese Migrants Risking Their Lives to Cross the US Southern Border?". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  22. ↑ Chen, Alicia (2023-03-09). "Growing numbers of Chinese citizens set their sights on the US – via the deadly Darién Gap". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  23. ↑ Zhang, T. (2023) ‘Why Are More and More Chinese Migrants Risking Their Lives to Cross the US Southern Border?’. Available at: https://thediplomat.com/2023/06/why-are-more-and-more-chinese-migrants-risking-their-lives-to-cross-the-us-southern-border/ (Accessed 03/11/23)
  24. ↑ EXECUTIVE OFFICE FOR IMMIGRATION REVIEW ADJUDICATION STATISTICS’. Available at: https://www.justice.gov/eoir/page/file/1107366/download (Accessed 06/11/23)
  25. 1 2 3 "Migrants use Chinese version of TikTok for tips on long trek to U.S." Reuters. 2023-04-28. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  26. ↑ "More Chinese migrants are crossing Panama's jungle to come to the U.S." NBC News. 2023-10-30. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  27. 1 2 Cafruny, A.W. and Talani, L.S. (2023) ‘9 Authoritarian Crisis Response to COVID-19 in China’, in The political economy of global responses to covid-19. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, an imprint of Springer Nature Switzerland AG, pp. 183–201.
  28. ↑ Dyer, O. (2022) Covid-19: Protests against lockdowns in China reignite amid crackdown. BMJ (Online). [Online] 379o2896–o2896.
  29. 1 2 "暗中兴起的 "走线"潮，为谋生他们冒死穿越雨林、偷渡美国". 歪脑 WHYNOT. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  30. ↑ "As economy falters, more Chinese migrants take a perilous journey to the US border to seek asylum". AP News. 2023-10-30. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  31. ↑ "世界难民日专题：去国离乡，寻找希望的中国走线移民". 美国之音 (in Chinese). 2023-06-17. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  32. ↑ Chowdhury, I. and Li, Y. (2023) China Economic Update - June 2023 - world bank, China Economic Update - June 2023. Available at: https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/a9fcfb131b5dc335abe8d283998fd9f6-0070012023/original/CEU-June-2023-EN.pdf (Accessed 06/11/2023). 
  33. ↑ Spagat, Elliot; Bull, Greg; Tang, Didi; Garcia, Eugene. "AP out front on flow of Chinese asylum-seekers entering U.S. from…". AP Beats. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  34. ↑ "More Chinese Migrants Are Journeying to the U.S. Border to Seek Asylum". TIME. 2023-10-30. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  35. ↑ "世界难民日专题：去国离乡，寻找希望的中国走线移民". 美国之音 (in Chinese). 2023-06-17. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  36. ↑ Chan, K. (2023) Unwritten Endings: Revolutionary Potential of China’s A4 Protest. Sociologica (Bologna). [Online] 17 (1), 57–66
  37. ↑ Hsin, A. & Aptekar, S. (2022) The Violence of Asylum: The Case of Undocumented Chinese Migration to the United States. Social forces. [Online] 100 (3), 1195–1217.
  38. ↑ LAZARUS, L. (2023) Triads, snakeheads, and flying money: The underworld of Chinese ...LELAND LAZARUS, TRIADS, SNAKEHEADS, AND FLYING MONEY THE UNDERWORLD OF CHINESE CRIMINAL NETWORKS IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN. Available at: https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1057&context=jgi_research (Accessed 06/11/2023). 
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