White Terror (Taiwan)
Part of Chinese Civil War, retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan, and Cold War
The Horrifying Inspection by Taiwanese printmaker Huang Rong-can. It describes the hostile environment in Taiwan shortly after the February 28 incident, which marked the start of the White Terror period.
LocationTaiwan and other ROC-controlled islands
Date1947–1987
TargetPolitical dissidents, including leftists, liberals, independence activists, and intellectuals
Attack type
Politicide, mass murder, political repression, police state
DeathsAt least 3,000 to 4,000 executed, not including the 228 incident (18,000 to 28,000 killed) or extrajudicial executions[1]
VictimsAt least 140,000 imprisoned
PerpetratorsGovernment of the Republic of China (Taiwan) under the Kuomintang (KMT)
MotiveConsolidate rule over Taiwan after retreat from mainland China
White Terror
Chinese白色恐怖
Literal meaningWhite Terror

The White Terror (Chinese: 白色恐怖; pinyin: Báisè Kǒngbù; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Pe̍h-sek Khióng-pò͘) was the political repression of Taiwanese civilians and political dissenters under the Kuomintang (KMT)-ruled government.[2] The period of White Terror is generally considered to have begun when martial law was declared in Taiwan on 19 May 1949, which was enabled by the 1948 Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion, and ended on 21 September 1992 with the repeal of Article 100 of the Criminal Code, allowing for the prosecution of "anti-state" activities. The Temporary Provisions were repealed a year earlier on 22 April 1991 and martial law was lifted on 15 July 1987.[3][4]

The period of White Terror generally does not include the February 28 incident of 1947, in which the KMT killed at least 18,000 Taiwanese civilians in response to a popular uprising, and also summarily executed many local political and intellectual elites. The two are frequently discussed in tandem as it was the catalyst that motivated the KMT to begin the White Terror.[5][6] Martial law was declared and lifted twice during the February 28 incident.

Two years after the February 28 incident, the KMT retreated from mainland China to Taiwan during the closing stages of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Wanting to consolidate its rule on its remaining territories, the KMT imposed harsh political suppression measures, which included enacting martial law, executing suspected leftists or those they suspected to be sympathetic toward the communists.[7] Others targeted included Taiwanese locals and indigenous peoples who participated in the February 28 incident, such as Uyongʉ Yata'uyungana, and those accused of dissidence for criticizing the government.[8]

The KMT carried out persecutions against those who criticized or opposed the government, accusing them of attempting to subvert the regime, while excessively expanding the scope of punishment throughout this period.[9] It made use of the Taiwan Garrison Command (TGC), a secret police, as well as other intelligence units by enacting special criminal laws as tools for the government to purge dissidents.[10] Basic human rights and the right to privacy were disregarded, with mass pervasive monitoring of the people, filings of sham criminal cases against anyone who were suspected as being a dissident, as well as labelling any individuals who were not conforming a pro-regime stance as being communist spies, often without merit.[11] Others were labeled as Taiwanese separatists and prosecuted for treason.[12] It is estimated that about 3,000 to 4,000 civilians were executed by the government during the White Terror.[1] The government was also suspected of carrying out extrajudicial killings against exiles in other countries.[lower-alpha 1]

Pro-democracy demonstrations attempted during this period, such as the Kaohsiung Incident, were harshly suppressed. The KMT ruled as a one-party state, with the existence of real opposition parties strictly outlawed, resulting in non-existent competitive elections. Despite the existence of nominally fair local elections, some unapproved tangwai candidates that won local elections such as Hsu Hsin-liang were spuriously impeached and often forced into exile.[13] These limited elections were also marred by electoral fraud, most notably during the Zhongli incident.

The ruling pattern and repression of Chiang Kai-shek's regime are rooted in its neo-nationalist ideology and theory. Two of the most prominent movements that practiced KMT’s neo-nationalist ideas were the New Life Movement in Mainland China and the Chinese Cultural Renaissance movement in Taiwan. The New Life Movement has been described by some academics and scholars as "Confucian fascism", which imitates certain fascist regimes to increase Chiang's control of the everyday lives of the citizens.[14][15] Another example is the KMT's National Revolutionary Army (later reorganized into the Republic of China Armed Forces in 1947), was heavily dependent on German military assistance to counter raging communist insurgencies, with its army doctrine inspired by the German military mission during the Sino-German cooperation (1926–1941) until Nazi Germany decided to withdraw in 1938 to align with Imperial Japan.[16][17][18] When Chiang retreated to Taiwan in 1949, his regime suspended the liberal democratic provisions in the ROC constitution indefinitely under the martial law, and ruled Taiwan under a variation of right-wing dictatorship. The legacy of authoritarianism during the White Terror in Taiwan has persisted until today, and political discussions about this topic continue to be highly controversial on the island.[19]

Time period

Dwight D. Eisenhower with Chiang Kai-Shek in Taipei, 1960.

The White Terror is generally considered to have begun with the declaration of martial law on 19 May 1949. For its ending date, some sources cite the lifting of martial law on 15 July 1987,[20] while others cite the repeal of Article 100 of the Criminal Code on 21 September 1992, which allowed for the persecution of people for "anti-state" activities.[3] Martial law officially lasted for almost four decades,[lower-alpha 2] which had been the longest period of martial law in the world at the time it was lifted. It is now the second longest, after Syria's 48-year period of martial law which lasted from 1963 to 2011.[21]

Most prosecutions took place between the first two decades as the KMT wanted to consolidate its rule on the island. Most of those prosecuted were labeled by the Kuomintang (KMT) as "bandit spies" (匪諜), meaning communist spies, and punished as such, often with execution.[20] Chiang Kai-shek once famously said that he would rather "mistakenly kill 1,000 innocent people than allow one communist to escape".[22]

The KMT mostly imprisoned Taiwan's intellectuals and social elites out of fear that they might resist KMT rule or sympathize with communism and separatism.[1] For example, the Formosan League for Reemancipation was a Taiwanese independence group established in 1947, which the KMT believed to be under communist control, leading to its members being arrested in 1950. The World United Formosans for Independence was persecuted for similar reasons. However, other prosecutions did not have such clear reasoning, such as in 1968, when Bo Yang was imprisoned for his choice of words in translating a Popeye comic strip. A large number of the White Terror's other victims were mainland Chinese, many of whom owed their evacuation to Taiwan to the KMT.[23]

Many mainlander victims of White Terror, such as Bo Yang, Lei Chen, and Li Ao, moved on to promote Taiwan's democratization and the reform of the Kuomintang. In 1969, future president Lee Teng-hui was detained and interrogated for more than a week by the Taiwan Garrison Command, which demanded to know about his "communist activities" and told him "killing you at this moment is as easy as crushing an ant to death." Three years later he was invited to join the cabinet of Chiang Ching-kuo.[24]

Fear of discussing the White Terror and the February 28 Incident gradually decreased with the lifting of martial law after the 1987 Lieyu massacre,[25] culminating in the establishment of an official public memorial and an apology by President Lee Teng-hui in 1995. In 2008, President Ma Ying-jeou addressed a memorial service for the White Terror in Taipei. Ma apologized to the victims and their family members on behalf of the government and expressed the hope that Taiwan would never again experience a similar tragedy.[26]

Victims

Taiwanese political dissident Chen Chih-hsiung after and prior to his execution

Around 140,000 Taiwanese were imprisoned under harsh treatment during this period, with many either indirectly dying or suffering various health problems in the process. About 3,000 to 4,000 were directly executed for their real or perceived opposition to the KMT's Chiang Kai-shek government.[1] Most of the victims of the White Terror were men, however, a number of women were tortured and/or executed.[27][28]

Examples

  • 1848: April 6 Incident, TGC besieged dormitories of NTU and NTNU to arrest students for a public protest incident by a bicycle traffic ticket, which started the precedent of Academic white Terror of the military custom entering schools to arrest students and teachers.[29][30]
  • 1949: July 13 Penghu incident, where secondary school students, mostly refugees from Shandong province, were conscripted by force as soldiers on July 13. Two principals and five students were executed for attempting to report the incident.[31][32]
  • 1949 – 1955: ROC Navy White Terror, 1196 Navy servicemen were imprisoned with numerous members being executed.[33][34]
  • 1952: Chungli Yimin Middle School incident,[35] where many teachers were arrested and executed.[23]
  • 1952: Luku incident (鹿窟事件), during which 35 people were executed and 98 imprisoned.[36][37]
  • 1953: Aborigine leaders, including Major Yapasuyongʉ Yulunana and musician Uyongʉ Yata'uyungana, were cheated to be arrested, then executed in 1954.[38][39]
  • 1953 – 1954: Polish civilian tanker Praca and general cargo ship Prezydent Gottwald were assaulted on the Pacific Ocean with 1 death in custody;[40][41] 29 Chinese sailors were imprisoned up to 35 years with 3 executed and 6 death.[42]
  • 1954: Tainan Post Office Case: 51 postal staff were arrested and tortured for a socialism book found on desk, 14 sentenced in prison, including a pregnant. Shi Shui-huan and Ting Yao-tiao were instantly executed in 1956 with the toddler born in prison being violently torn apart from mother and injured by guards.[43][44]
  • 1954: Soviet civilian tanker Tuapse was privateered in high sea with 49 crew being mistreated and detained up to 34 years and 2 death and 1 suicide.[45][41][46]
  • 1955: Over 300 subordinate officers of pro-British/American general Sun Li-jen were arrested, tortured and imprisoned for high treason as communist spies.[47][48] Sun was under house arrest for 33 years until 1988.[49]
  • 1957: May 24 incident, Chiang Ching-kuo's China Youth Corps along with military and police officers instigated anti-American riots after a shooting incident; Embassy of the United States was also sieged.[50][51]
  • 1960: Lei Chen, publisher of the Free China Journal and scholars organizing a democratic party were arrested,[52] and imprisoned up to 10 years,[53] where his memoir in jail time was incinerated.[54]
  • 1961: Su Tung-chi case: TGC arrested over 300 Taiwanese independence supporters in secret trials, but was reported by AFP and reduced to 49.[55]
  • 1966: Shin Sheng News Case: Following the first wave of persecution and execution in 1947, the Newspaper journalists were framed and persecuted as suspect communist spies. Reporter Shen Yuan-zhang was tortured to death naked by a rope cutting through the vagina, while her husband was beaten up next door hearing her screaming.[56][57]
  • 1968: Democratic Taiwan Union Case: Imprisonment of 36 writers including Chen Yingzhen and Chiu Yen-liang, who supported independence.
  • 1972 – 1975: NTU Philosophy Department Incident: 13 professors including Robert Martin and Chao Tien-yi were framed and fired as "communism sympathisers" supported by John King Fairbank.
  • 1979 – 1980: TGC arrested over 100 pro-democracy activists after a protest on December 10 1979, some were tortured, 8 court-martialed for rebellion, 37 charged in civilian courts, 91 eventually released, later known as the Kaohsiung Incident.
  • 1980: The mother and twin daughters of democracy activist Lin Yi-hsiung (arrested following the Kaohsiung incident) are stabbed to death on February 28.[58][59]
  • 1981: Carnegie Mellon statistics professor Chen Wen-chen is found dead on July 3 after a long interrogation session with government officials during a visit to Taiwan.[60][61]
  • 1984: Journalist Henry Liu is assassinated at his home in Daly City, California for writings disparaging President of the Republic of China, Chiang Ching-kuo. The assassination is thought to have been orchestrated by Pai Wan-hsiang.[62][63]
  • 1987: 1987 Lieyu massacre: 19 landed refugees were killed by the military and evidence was destroyed. The ROC government denied that the incident occurred after it was reported by journalists and during questioning by the parliament.[64][65]

Legacy

Since the lifting of martial law in 1987, the government has set up the 228 Incident Memorial Foundation, a civilian reparations fund supported by public donations for the victims and their families. Many descendants of victims remain unaware that their family members were victims, while many of the families of victims, especially from Mainland China, did not know the details of their relatives' mistreatment during the riot. The Taiwanese government also established the Transitional Justice Commission, which aimed to erase the authoritarian legacy of the KMT regime under Chiang and deliver justice to the families and relatives of the victims.

Film

Literature

  • Vern Sneider's novel A Pail of Oysters in 1953 was based on the officer's personal field survey revealing people's life in Taiwanese society under suppression in 1950s, was banned by Chinese Nationalists' authorities until being reissued in 2016 – 35 years after his death.[82][83][84][85]
  • Tehpen Tasi's autobiography Elegy of Sweet Potatoes (Japanese: 臺湾のいもっ子) in 1994, based on his testimony with the other political prisoners together for 13 months in 1954–1955.[86][87]
  • Julie Wu's The Third Son in 2013 describes the event and its aftermath from the viewpoint of a Taiwanese boy.[88]
  • Jennifer J. Chow's The 228 Legacy in 2013 focuses on how there was such an impact that it permeated throughout multiple generations within the same family.[89]
  • Shawna Yang Ryan's Green Island in 2016 tells the story of the incident as it affects three generations of a Taiwanese family.[90]
  • Ken Liu's The Paper Menagerie & Other Short Stories in 2016 includes a short story titled The Literomancer which references the February 28 incident from the perspective of a young American girl who had recently moved to Taiwan, and asks both her father, who works on an American military base, and a neighbor, and old man named Mr. Kan about the incident. It develops on these two different perspectives throughout the story, becoming progressively darker.
  • Principle Jian Tian-lu's Hushen, a 2019 literature award winner expresses the humanity concern in contrast with the brutality on the first scene of 1987 Lieyu massacre.[91]

Games

  • In 2014, Sharp Point Press and Future-Digi publicized the 'Rainy Port Keelung with 3 light novels telling a love story in the background of Keelung Massacre during the Feb. 28 incident.[92]
  • In 2017, Taiwanese game developer Red Candle Games launched Detention, a survival horror video game created and developed for Steam. It is a 2D atmospheric horror side-scroller set in 1960s Taiwan under martial law following the February 28 incident. The critically acclaimed game also incorporates religious elements based on Taiwanese culture and mythology. Rely On Horror gave the game a 9 out of 10, saying that "every facet of Detention moves in one harmonious lockstep towards an unavoidable tragedy, drowning out the world around you."[93]
  • In 2017, Erotes Studio produced Blue Blood Lagoon with the story of high-school students running for life to escape from the bloodshed of military conscription arrest, prosecution and execution during the July 13 Penghu incident.[94]
  • In 2019, Team Padendon publicized a ghost RPG PAGUI based on a true family story of the Kaohsiung Massacre victims in Feb. 28 Incident: An orphan raised by a temple uncovered his identity and looked for his dispersed family for over 60 years with no result until he died; an old lady in her 90s heard the news arrives but only find her son in the coffin.
  • In 2020, MatchB Studio produced an adventure puzzle Halflight with two brothers playing near a base witnessed an execution site upon the Feb. 28 incident, and one fell missing in chaos, followed by the family being persecuted apart, so the little boy went back trying to find the younger brother, but only stepped into the worse ending in 50 years.

Memorials

See also

Notes and references

Notes

  1. ↑ See Henry Liu and Chen Wen-chen.
  2. ↑ 38 years and 57 days.

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 4 Huang, Tai-lin (20 May 2005). "White Terror exhibit unveils part of the truth". Taipei Times. p. 2. Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
  2. ↑ Rubinstein, Murray A. (2007). Taiwan: A New History. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe. p. 302. ISBN 9780765614957.
  3. 1 2 "White Terror Period". National Human Rights Museum. Archived from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  4. ↑ "Taiwan: Amendment of Article 100 of the Criminal Code". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 2022-01-08. Retrieved 2022-01-08.
  5. ↑ 楊碧川. "嘉義的228故事：濫殺槍決，血染機場、火車站". The Reporter (Taiwan). Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  6. ↑ Sui, Cindy (13 March 2016). "Taiwan Kuomintang: Revisiting the White Terror years". BBC News. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
  7. ↑ Fuchs, Chris (27 February 2017). "30 years after end of martial law, scars from Taiwan's 'White Terror' remain". NBC News. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
  8. ↑ Chen, Yu-fu; Hetherington, William (30 August 2021). "Aboriginal White Terror period victims remembered – Taipei Times". taipeitimes.com. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
  9. ↑ Hale, Erin (10 December 2021). "Book review: Stories from Taiwan's "White Terror"". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on 13 January 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
  10. ↑ Bodenner, Chris (7 December 2016). "Is Taiwan Really a Beacon of Freedom? – The Atlantic". www.theatlantic.com. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
  11. ↑ Adams, John (26 February 2017). "Victims demand justice 70 years after Taiwan's bloody 228 Incident massacre | The Straits Times". www.straitstimes.com. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
  12. ↑ "肅殺的白色恐怖！寧可錯殺一千也不放過一人 – 歷史". 13 March 2020.
  13. ↑ 房慧真. "【中壢事件40周年】許信良：群眾火燒警局時，我在三溫暖睡覺". The Reporter (Taiwan). Archived from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2022. 真正的秋後算帳在1979，蔣經國接任總統這一年。年初由余登發父子被捕揭開序幕，許信良主張前往聲援，因為參與「橋頭事件」遊行，許信良被省政府以「擅離職守」罪名移送監察院，6月底，就職縣長1年半的同時，公懲會宣布許信良「休職2年」。只因曠職1天，辛苦拚來的桃園縣長，被迫提早謝幕。
  14. ↑ Hartnett, Shaou-Whea Dodge & Keränen 2019, p. 5-6.
  15. ↑ Frederic Wakeman (1 June 1997). "A Revisionist View of the Nanjing Decade: Confucian Fascism". The China Quarterly. Vol. 150. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 395–432. JSTOR 655343. Retrieved 7 September 2023 – via JSTOR.
  16. ↑ "Fascism in China Today – Ancient Roots and Modern Realities". Alexandria, Virginia: World Future Fund. Archived from the original on 4 July 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
  17. ↑ Eastman, Lloyd E. (1972). "Fascism in Kuomintang China". The China Quarterly. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 49. doi:10.1017/S0305741000036481. JSTOR 652110. S2CID 154740593. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2022 – via JSTOR.
  18. ↑ Rummel, R. J. (1991). China's Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1412806704. Archived from the original on 13 August 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2022 – via University of Hawaiʻi.
  19. ↑ Morris, James X. (27 February 2019). "The 228 Incident Still Haunts Taiwan". thediplomat.com. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
  20. 1 2 Chen, Ketty (Winter 2008). "Disciplining Taiwan: The Kuomintang's Methods of Control during the White Terror Era (1947–1987)" (PDF). Taiwan International Studies Quarterly. 4 (4): 187. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-05-13. Retrieved 2014-06-22.
  21. ↑ Barker, Anne (28 March 2011). "Syria to end 48 years of martial law". ABC News. Archived from the original on 1 November 2017. Retrieved 30 September 2014.
  22. ↑ Barnouin, Barbara and Yu Changgen. Zhou Enlai: A Political Life. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. p. 38
  23. 1 2 張, 子午. "The Graveyard At The Center Of Taiwan's White Terror Period". The Reporter. Archived from the original on 27 March 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  24. ↑ Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (2005). Lee Teng-Hui and Taiwan's Quest for Identity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 101–103. ISBN 9781403970565.
  25. ↑ Hau Pei-tsun (2000-01-01). <8-year Diary of the Chief of the General Staff (1981-1989)>. Commonwealth Publishing. ISBN 9576216389. Archived from the original on 2023-04-11. Retrieved 2020-10-28.(in Chinese)
  26. ↑ "President Ma attends White Terror Memorial". China Post. July 16, 2008. Archived from the original on 2017-02-03.
  27. ↑ Cheung, Han. "Taiwan in Time: The women claimed by the White Terror". www.taipeitimes.com. Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 17 July 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
  28. ↑ Ping, Hsing Ku. "Wang Ruisong and Chiang Kai-Shek :Ping-Hsing Ku Abuse". Archived from the original on 2022-10-03. Retrieved 2022-10-03.
  29. ↑ Lu, Fang-shang (1999). 《戒嚴時期台北地區政治案件相關人士口述歷史：白色恐怖事件查訪（上、下）》 ["Oral History of People Related to Political Cases in Taipei During the Martial Law Period: Investigation on the White Terror Incidents (Part 1 & 2)"] (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taipei: Taipei City Archives. ISBN 9789570249767.
  30. ↑ Huang, tHui-zhen (28 November 2007). "四六事件" [April 6 Incident] (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taipei: Ministry of Culture (Taiwan). Archived from the original on 2022-12-03. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
  31. ↑ Cheung, Han (July 10, 2016). "Students, soldiers and spies". Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 2 April 2019.
  32. ↑ Chang, Mau-Kuei; Lin, Chong-Wei; Wu, Rwei-ren (13 October 2017). "臺灣外省人生命記憶與敘事資料庫 (II) – 揭開「白色封印」研究成果報告 (完整版)" [Database of Life Memories and Narratives of Chinese Mainlanders (II) – Uncovering the "White Seal" Research Report (full Edition)] (PDF). Theme Research Project Report to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Executive Yuan (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taipei: Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences, Academia Sinica. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 4 March 2008.
  33. ↑ Lin, Chuan-Kai; Chang, Mau-Kuei; Lai, Chi-Yu (2016). "台灣五零年代海軍白色恐怖案件" [White Terror Cases of Taiwanese Navy in 1950s] (PDF). 台灣外省人生命記憶與敘事資料庫 (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taipei: Institute of Information Science, Academia Sinica. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2022. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
  34. ↑ Kuo, Chi-Bin (16 July 2020). "3" (PDF). 桂永清與戰後海軍重整 [Gui Yong-ching and the Navy Reorganization after the Chinese Civil War] (Thesis) (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taoyuan, Taiwan: Institute of Historical Research, National Central University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 July 2022. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
  35. ↑ Huang, Tai-lin (20 May 2005). "White Terror exhibit unveils part of the truth". Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  36. ↑ Zhang, Yan-hsian; Gao, Shu-yuan (1998). 《鹿窟事件調查研究》 [Investigation aResearch on the Luku Incident] (in Chinese (Taiwan)). New Taipei City: Cultural Affairs Department, New Taipei City Government. ISBN 9570217588. Archived from the original on 2022-07-15. Retrieved 2022-07-15.
  37. ↑ Weng, Yu-huang; Chen, Wei-han. "Luku Incident survivor pens memoir of events". Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  38. ↑ 傅琪貽 (13 October 2017). "戰後臺灣原住民的白色恐怖 (1950年代)" [The White Terror on the Taiwanest Aborigines after WWII in 1950s] (PDF). Taiwanese History and International Academic Research Cross-Strait (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taipei: 臺灣日本綜合研究所. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
  39. ↑ Yang, Bi-chuan (27 February 2017). "The 228 Massacre In Alishan: "All We Have Left Are Ashes And Bones"". The Reporter. Taipei. Archived from the original on 15 July 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
  40. ↑ Maciej Rosalak (1 June 2021). "Statki PRL w pułapce Czang Kaj-szeka" [Ships of the Polish People's Republic in the trap of Chiang Kai-shek] (in Polish). Warsaw: Orle Pióro. Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2022.
  41. 1 2 Lin, Hung-I (2008). "Chapter 4, 1953–1960" (PDF). 《封鎖大陸沿海──中華民國政府的「關閉政策」，1949–1960》 [Blockading the China coast: the "port-closure policy" of ROC government, 1949–1960] (MD thesis) (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-08-27. Retrieved 2021-03-14.
  42. ↑ Li, Zhen-hsiang (8 January 2009). "Praca" (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taiwan News Weekly, ver. 376, Taiwan Association for Truth and Reconciliation. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
  43. ↑ Han Cheung (18 July 2021). "Taiwan in Time: The women claimed by the White Terror". Taipei Times. Taipei. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
  44. ↑ Wang, Han-ping; Chin, Jonathan (25 November 2015). "Exhibition on White Terror era opens in Tainan - Taipei Times". Taipei Times. Taipei. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
  45. ↑ Prof. Sergey Vradiy (2020-02-20). ""Tuapse" Oil Tanker Episode in the History of Taiwan-Russia Relations" (PDF). Taiwan Fellowship, Center for Chinese Studies, National Central Library. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-10-06. Retrieved 2021-03-14.
  46. ↑ Лев КАПЛИН. "The tragedy of the tanker "Tuapse"" (in Russian). Riddles of History. Archived from the original on 2022-12-26. Retrieved 2021-03-14.
  47. ↑ Moody, Peter R. (1977). Opposition and dissent in contemporary China. Hoover Press. p. 302. ISBN 0-8179-6771-0. Archived from the original on 4 July 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
  48. ↑ Tucker, Nancy Bernkopf (1983). Patterns in the dust: Chinese-American relations and the recognition controversy, 1949-1950. Columbia University Press. p. 181. ISBN 0-231-05362-2. Archived from the original on 4 July 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
  49. ↑ Howard L. Boorman; Janet Krompart (1970). Biographical Dictionary of Republican China. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231045581. Archived from the original on 2023-04-11. Retrieved 2022-07-15.
  50. ↑ Craft, Stephen G. (2015). American Justice in Taiwan: The 1957 Riots and Cold War Foreign Policy. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 9780813166377. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2022.
  51. ↑ Wang, Feng (16 October 2015). 刺殺蔣介石：美國與蔣政權鬥爭史 [Assassination on Chiang Kai-shek: A History of American Struggle with Chiang's Regime] (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taipei: China Times Publishing. ISBN 9789571364308. Archived from the original on 5 October 2022. Retrieved 6 July 2022.
  52. ↑ Han Cheung (18 March 2018). "Taiwan in Time: Chiang Kai-shek's last challenger". Taipei: Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 5 July 2022. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
  53. ↑ "One man's struggle for a nation's freedom". Translated by Huang, Francis; Svensson, Perry; Chang, Eddy; Lin, Jackie; Shaw, Grace. Taipei: Taipei Times. 5 September 2002. Archived from the original on 5 July 2022. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
  54. ↑ "Military authorities burn Lei Chen Memoirs" (PDF). Taiwan Communiqué. Taipei: International Committee for Human Rights in Taiwan (36). September 1988. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
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