Circumcision ceremony in Skopje, North Macedonia.

Circumcision has played a significant cultural, social, and religious role in various global cultures over the course of world history. This has subsequently led to widely varying views related to the practice.[1]

Abrahamic faiths

The rite plays a major role in the Abrahamic faiths.[2] Mainstream forms of Judaism view the practice as an integral and central religious obligation that is one of the most important commandments for Jews,[3] while differing schools of interpretation within Islam view it either as an obligation or recommended.[4]

Circumcision has also played a major role in Christian history and theology.[5] Covenant theology largely views the Christian sacrament of baptism as fulfilling the Israelite practice of circumcision, both being signs and seals of the covenant of grace.[6][7] With the exception of the Coptics, Ethiopian Orthodox and Eritrean Orthodox where circumcision is an integral or established or requirement practice for members of these churches,[8][9] the large majority of mainstream Christian denominations maintain a neutral position on it in with respect to medical or cultural reasons,[10][11] although all of them honor the circumcision of Jesus and condemn the rite when it is viewed as a means or requirement towards an individual's justification.[12] According to Scholar Heather L. Armstrong of University of Southampton, many Christians have been circumcised for reasons such as family preferences, depending on Biblical interpretation by individuals, medical or cultural reasons.[11]

Samaritanism view the circumcision as an integral and central religious obligation that is one of the most important commandments for Samaritans.[13][14] Circumcision is widely practiced by the Druze, the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition,[15] and has no religious significance in the Druze faith.[16][17] Some Druses do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe what they see as a "common Muslim practice".[18]

Indian faiths

Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Sikhism, strongly prohibit the practice of routine circumcision. Hinduism discourages non-medical circumcision, as according to them, the body is made by the almighty God, and nobody has right to alter it without the concern of the person who is going for it.[19] Sikhism does not require the elective circumcision of its followers and strongly criticizes the practice,[20] and Sikh infants are not circumcised.[21] Buddhism appears to have a neutral view on circumcision.[22]

African cultures

9–10-year-old boys of the Yao tribe in Malawi participating in circumcision and initiation rites

Circumcision in Africa, and the rites of initiation in Africa, as well as "the frequent resemblance between details of ceremonial procedure in areas thousands of kilometres apart, indicate that the circumcision ritual has an old tradition behind it and in its present form is the result of a long process of development."[23] Circumcision is prevalent among 92% of men in North Africa and around 62% in Sub-Saharan Africa. In western and northern parts of Africa it is mainly performed for religious reasons, whereas in southern parts of Africa it rarely performed in neonates, instead being a rite of passage into manhood.[24]

In some African and Eastern Christian denominations male circumcision is an integral or established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision.[25] Circumcision is near-universal among Coptic Christians, Ethiopian Orthodox and Eritrean Orthodox, and they practice circumcision as a rite of passage.[26]

Certain African cultural groups, such as the Yoruba and the Igbo of Nigeria, customarily circumcise their infant sons. The procedure is also practiced by some cultural groups or individual family lines in Sudan, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and in southern Africa. For some of these groups, circumcision appears to be purely cultural, done with no particular religious significance or intention to distinguish members of a group. For others, circumcision might be done for purification, or it may be interpreted as a mark of subjugation. Among these groups, even when circumcision is done for reasons of tradition, it is often done in hospitals.[27]

Asian cultures

In the Philippines, where four-fifths of Filipinos profess Roman Catholicism, circumcision is known as "tuli" and is generally viewed as a rite of passage.[28] An overwhelming majority of Filipino men are circumcised.[28] According to the United Nations World Health Organisation:

In the Philippines, where circumcision is almost universal and typically occurs at age 10–14 years, a survey of boys found strong evidence of social determinants, with two thirds of boys choosing to be circumcised simply "to avoid being uncircumcised", and 41% stating that it was "part of the tradition"[29]

The overall prevalence of circumcision in South Korea has increased markedly in the second half of the 20th century, rising from near zero around 1950 to about 60% in 2000, with the most significant jumps in the last two decades of that time period.[26] This is probably due to the influence of the United States, which established a trusteeship for the country following World War II.[26]

Neither the Avesta nor the Zoroastrian Pahlavi texts mention circumcision, traditionally, Zoroastrians do not practice circumcision.[30] Circumcision is not required in Yazidism, but is practised by some Yazidis due to regional customs.[31] The ritual is usually performed soon after birth, it takes place on the knees of the kerîf (approximately "godfather"), with whom the child will have a life-long formal relationship.[32]

Circumcision is forbidden in Mandaeism,[33] and the sign of the Jews given to Abraham by God, circumcision, is considered abhorrent by the Mandaeans.[34] According to the Mandaean doctrine a circumcised man cannot serve as a Mandaean priest.[35]

Australian cultures

Circumcision is part of initiation rites in some Pacific Islander, and Australian aboriginal traditions in areas such as Arnhem Land,[36] where the practice was introduced by Makassan traders from Sulawesi in the Indonesian Archipelago.[37] Some Australian Aborigines use circumcision as a test of bravery and self-control as a part of a rite of passage into manhood, which results in full societal and ceremonial membership. Circumcision ceremonies among certain Australian aboriginal societies are noted for their painful nature, including subincision for some aboriginal peoples in the Western Desert.[38]

In the Pacific, ritual circumcision is nearly universal in the Melanesian islands of Fiji and Vanuatu;[39] Circumcision is also commonly practised in the Polynesian islands of Samoa, Tonga, Niue, and Tikopia.[26] In Samoa, it is accompanied by a celebration.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Benson, Janette (2008). Encyclopedia of Infant and Early Childhood Development: A-F. Academic Press. p. 279. ISBN 978-0-12-370461-0.
  2. ↑ Balentine, Samuel, ed. (September 16, 2020). "Ritual Beyond History: The Transcending Power of Ritual and Community". The Oxford Handbook of Ritual and Worship in the Hebrew Bible. p. 499.
  3. ↑ Mark, Elizabeth (2003). "Frojmovic/Travelers to the Circumcision". The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite. Brandeis University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-58465-307-3.
  4. ↑ "Khitān: The Islamic Rite of Circumcision". Encyclopædia Britannica. July 20, 1998. Retrieved July 29, 2022.
  5. ↑ Bolnick, David; Koyle, Martin; Yosha, Assaf (2012). Surgical Guide to Circumcision. United Kingdom: Springer. pp. 290–298. ISBN 978-1-4471-2858-8.
  6. ↑ Clark, R. Scott (September 17, 2012). "Baptism and Circumcision According to Colossians 2:11–12". The Heidelblog. Retrieved December 24, 2020.
  7. ↑ Crowther, Jonathan (1815). A Portraiture of Methodism. p. 224.
  8. ↑ N. Stearns, Peter (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World. Oxford University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-19-517632-2.
  9. ↑ Pitts-Taylor, Victoria (2008). Cultural Encyclopedia of the Body [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 394. ISBN 978-1-56720-691-3.
  10. ↑ S. Ellwood, Robert (2008). The Encyclopedia of World Religions. Infobase Publishing. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-4381-1038-7.
  11. 1 2 L. Armstrong, Heather (2021). Encyclopedia of Sex and Sexuality: Understanding Biology, Psychology, and Culture [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 115–117. ISBN 978-1-61069-875-7.
  12. ↑ Adams, Gregory; Adams, Kristina (July 25, 2012). "Circumcision in the Early Christian Church: The Controversy That Shaped a Continent". In Bolnick, David; Koyle, Martin; Yosha, Assaf (eds.). Surgical Guide to Circumcision. Springer London. pp. 290, 293–295. ISBN 978-1-4471-2858-8.
  13. ↑ Timothy Michael Law, When God Spoke Greek: The Septuagint and the Making of the Christian Bible, Oxford University Press, USA, 2013 p.24.
  14. ↑ Mark, Elizabeth (2003). The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite. University Press of New England. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-1-58465-307-3.
  15. ↑ Ubayd, Anis (2006). The Druze and Their Faith in Tawhid. Syracuse University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-8156-3097-5.
  16. ↑ Jacobs, Daniel (1998). Israel and the Palestinian Territories: The Rough Guide. Rough Guides. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-85828-248-0.
  17. ↑ M. Silver, M. (2022). The History of Galilee, 1538–1949: Mysticism, Modernization, and War. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-7936-4943-0.
  18. ↑ Brenton Betts, Robert (2013). The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-61234-523-9.
  19. ↑ Clarence-Smith, William G. (2008). "Islam and Female Genital Cutting in Southeast Asia: The Weight of the Past" (PDF). Finnish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration. 3 (2). Archived from the original on March 6, 2009.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  20. ↑ Cherry, Mark (2013). Religious Perspectives on Bioethics. Taylor & Francis. p. 213. ISBN 978-90-265-1967-3.
  21. ↑ "Guidelines for health Care Providers Interacting with Patients of the Sikh Religion and their Families" (PDF). Metropolitan Chicago Healthcare Council. November 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 16, 2007. Retrieved May 1, 2007.
  22. ↑ London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine; WHO; UNAIDS (2007). "Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability" (PDF). p. 4.
  23. ↑ Wagner, Günter (1949). "Circumcision And Initiation Rites" (PDF). The Bantu of North Kavirondo: Volume 1. Oxford University Press. p. 335. doi:10.4324/9780429485817. ISBN 978-0-429-48581-7.
  24. ↑ Taiwo Lawal; et al. (April 2017). "Circumcision and its effects in Africa". Translational Andrology and Urology. 6 (2): 149–157. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.12.02. PMC 5422680. PMID 28540221.
  25. ↑ Pitts-Taylor, Victoria (2008). Cultural Encyclopedia of the Body [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 394. ISBN 978-1-56720-691-3. For most part, Christianity does not require circumcision of its followers. Yet, some Orthodox and African Christian groups do require circumcision. These circumcisions take place at any point between birth and puberty.
  26. 1 2 3 4 "Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 22, 2015.
  27. ↑ "Circumcision". Encyclopedia of Religion (2 ed.). Gale. 2005.
  28. 1 2 "Tuli a rite of passage for Filipino boys". May 6, 2011. Archived from the original on December 8, 2015. Retrieved December 6, 2015.
  29. ↑ Weiss, H (2008). Male circumcision – Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. p. 5. Retrieved December 21, 2017.
  30. ↑ Häberl, Charles (2009). The Neo-Mandaic Dialect of Khorramshahr. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 4. ISBN 978-3-447-05874-2.
  31. ↑ Parry, O. H. (Oswald Hutton) (1895). "Six months in a Syrian monastery; being the record of a visit to the head quarters of the Syrian church in Mesopotamia, with some account of the Yazidis or devil worshippers of Mosul and El Jilwah, their sacred book". London : H. Cox.
  32. ↑ Kreyenbroek, Philip G. (2009). Yezidism in Europe: Different Generations Speak about Their Religion. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-06060-8.
  33. ↑ Drower, Ethel Stefana (1937). The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran. Oxford at the Clarendon Press.
  34. ↑ Schmidinger, Thomas (2019). Beyond ISIS: History and Future of Religious Minorities in Iraq. Transnational Press London. p. 82. ISBN 978-1-912997-15-2.
  35. ↑ Deutsch, Nathaniel (1999). Guardians of the Gate: Angelic Vice-regency in the Late Antiquity. BRILL. p. 105. ISBN 978-90-04-10909-4.
  36. ↑ Aaron David Samuel Corn (2001). "Ngukurr Crying: Male Youth in a Remote Indigenous Community" (PDF). Working Paper Series No. 2. University of Wollongong. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 23, 2004. Retrieved October 18, 2006.
  37. ↑ "Migration and Trade". Green Turtle Dreaming. Archived from the original on August 19, 2006. Retrieved October 18, 2006. In exchange for turtles and trepang the Makassans introduced tobacco, the practice of circumcision and knowledge to build sea-going canoes.
  38. ↑ Jones, IH (June 1969). "Subincision among Australian western desert Aborigines". British Journal of Medical Psychology. 42 (2): 183–190. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.1969.tb02069.x. ISSN 0007-1129. PMID 5783777.
  39. ↑ "Recent Guest Speaker, March 15, Professor Roger Short". Australian AIDS Fund Incorporated. 2006. Archived from the original on August 20, 2006. Retrieved July 1, 2006.
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