United States invasion of Grenada
Part of the Cold War

An American Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopter hovers above the ground near an abandoned Soviet ZU-23-2 anti-aircraft weapon during the American invasion of Grenada, 1983.
Date25–29 October 1983 (4 days)[1]
Location
Grenada
Result

American–CPF victory

Belligerents
 United States
Supported by:
Grenadian opposition		 Grenada (PRG)
 Cuba
Commanders and leaders
Strength

United States United States:

  • 7,300 troops
  • 4 tanks

1 LPH USS Guam LPH-9 Flagship ComPhibron

  • 1 LHA (USS Saipan (LHA-2))
  • 1 aircraft carrier
  • 3 destroyers
  • 2 frigates
  • 1 ammunition ship
  • 27 F-14A Tomcats

CPF:

  • 353 peacekeepers

Grenada Grenada:

  • 1,300 troops
  • 8 APCs
  • 2 armored cars
  • 12 AA guns
Cuba Cuba: 784 (including 636 construction workers according to Cuba)[2]: 6, 26, 62 
Casualties and losses

United States United States:

  • 19 killed[3]
  • 116 wounded[2]: 6, 62 
  • 36 injured:[4]
  • 9 helicopters destroyed[4][5]

Grenada Grenada:

  • 45 killed
  • 358 wounded[2]: 62 
  • 6 APCs destroyed
  • 1 armored car destroyed

Cuba Cuba:

  • 24 killed[4]
  • 59 wounded[6]
  • 638 captured[2]
  • 2 transport aircraft captured

Soviet Union Soviet Union:

  • 2 wounded[7]
  • Weapons cache seized:
    • 12 APCs
    • 12 anti-aircraft guns
    • 291 submachine guns
    • 6,330 rifles
    • 5.6 million rounds of ammunition[8]
24 civilians killed (18 of them when a mental hospital was mistakenly bombed by U.S. Navy A-7s)[4]

The United States invasion of Grenada began at dawn on 25 October 1983. The United States and a coalition of six Caribbean nations invaded the island nation of Grenada, 100 miles (160 km) north of Venezuela. Codenamed Operation Urgent Fury by the U.S. military, it resulted in military occupation within a few days.[9] It was triggered by the strife within the People's Revolutionary Government, which resulted in the house arrest and execution of the previous leader and second Prime Minister of Grenada, Maurice Bishop, and the establishment of the Revolutionary Military Council, with Hudson Austin as chairman. The invasion resulted in the appointment of an interim government, followed by elections in 1984.

Grenada had gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1974. The Communist New Jewel Movement seized power in a nearly bloodless coup in 1979 under Maurice Bishop suspending the constitution and detaining several political prisoners. In September 1983, an internal power struggle began over Bishop's leadership performance.[10] Bishop was pressured at a party meeting to share power with Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard. Bishop initially agreed, but later balked. He was put under house arrest by his own party's Central Committee until he relented. When his secret detention became widely known, Bishop was freed by an aroused crowd of his supporters. Bishop made his way to the army headquarters at Fort Rupert (known today as Fort George). After he arrived, a military force was dispatched from Fort Frederick to Fort Rupert. Bishop and seven others, including cabinet ministers, were captured. Then a four-man People's Revolutionary Army firing squad executed Bishop, three members of his Cabinet and four others by machine-gunning them.

The Reagan administration mounted a US military intervention following receipt of a formal appeal for help from the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, which had received a covert appeal for assistance from the Governor-General of Grenada, Paul Scoon (though he put off signing the formal letter of invitation until 26 October).[11] President Reagan stated that he felt compelled to act due to "concerns over the 600 U.S. medical students on the island" and fears of a repeat of the Iran hostage crisis, which ended less than three years earlier. According to the future United States Secretary of State Lawrence Eagleburger, who was serving as Reagan's Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs at the time of the invasion, the prime motivation for the US intervention was to "get rid" of the coup leader Hudson Austin, and the students were the pretext.[12] While the invasion followed the execution of Maurice Bishop, his party members intending to gain power still maintained his communist ideologies. President Reagan expressed that he viewed this, alongside the party's growing connection to Fidel Castro, as a threat to democracy.[13]

The invading force consisted of the 1st and 2nd battalions of the US Army's 75th Ranger Regiment, the 82nd Airborne Division, and elements of the former Rapid Deployment Force, U.S. Marines, US Army Delta Force, Navy SEALs, and ancillary forces, totaling 7,600 troops, together with Jamaican forces and troops of the Regional Security System (RSS).[14] The force defeated Grenadian resistance after a low-altitude airborne assault by the Rangers and 82nd Airborne on Point Salines Airport, at the south end of the island, and a Marine helicopter and amphibious landing on the north end, at Pearls Airport. Austin's military government was deposed and replaced, with Scoon as Governor-General, by an interim advisory council until the 1984 elections.

The invasion was criticized by many countries. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher privately disapproved of the mission, in part because she was not consulted in advance and was given very short notice of the military operation, but she supported it in the press.[15] The United Nations General Assembly condemned it as "a flagrant violation of international law" on 2 November 1983, by a vote of 108 to 9.[16]

The date of the invasion is now a national holiday in Grenada, called Thanksgiving Day, commemorating the freeing of several political prisoners who were subsequently elected to office. A truth and reconciliation commission was launched in 2000 to re-examine some of the controversies of the era; in particular, the Commission made an unsuccessful attempt to find Bishop's body, which had been disposed of at Austin's order and never found.

The invasion highlighted issues with communication and coordination between the different branches of the American military when operating together as a joint force, triggering post action investigations resulting in sweeping operational changes in the form of the Goldwater-Nichols Act and other reorganizations.[17]

Background

Maurice Bishop and Foreign Minister Unison Whiteman in East Germany, 1982

Sir Eric Gairy had led Grenada to independence from the United Kingdom in 1974, but his term in office coincided with civil strife in his country. He was head of the Grenada United Labour Party and claimed victory in the general election of 1976, but the opposition did not accept the result as legitimate.[18] During his time in office, many Grenadians on the island believed Sir Eric Gairy was personally responsible for the economic decline of the country and accused of corruption.[19][20] Civil strife took the form of street violence between Gairy's private militia the Mongoose Gang, and militia organized by the New Jewel Movement (NJM). Maurice Bishop led the NJM in an armed revolution and overthrew the government on 13 March 1979, while Gairy was out of the country, establishing the People's Revolutionary Government.[17] Maurice Bishop was a powerful speaker, introducing Marxist ideologies to Grenadians while appealing to Black Americans during the height of the Black Panther movement. This new Government, entitled the Peoples Revolutionary Government, created the first socialist nation in the British Commonwealth.[21] To lend itself an appearance of constitutional legitimacy, the new administration continued to recognize Elizabeth II as Queen of Grenada and Governor-General of Grenada Paul Scoon as her representative.[22]

Airport

The Bishop government began constructing the Point Salines International Airport with the help of the United Kingdom, Cuba, Libya, Algeria, and other nations. The British government proposed the airport in 1954 when Grenada was still a British colony. Canadians designed it, the British government underwrote it, and a London firm built it. The American government accused Grenada of constructing facilities to aid a Soviet-Cuban military buildup in the Caribbean based on the 9,000-foot (2,700 m) runway which could accommodate the largest Soviet aircraft, such as the An-12, An-22, and the An-124. Such a facility would enhance the Soviet and Cuban transportation of weapons to Central American insurgents and expand Soviet regional influence. Bishop's government claimed that the airport was built to accommodate commercial aircraft carrying tourists, pointing out that such jets could not land at Pearls Airport with its 5,200-foot (1,600 m) runway on the island's north end, and that Pearls could not be expanded because its runway abutted a mountain at one end and the ocean at the other.[23]

Point Salines International Airport

In 1983, Representative Ron Dellums (D, California) traveled to Grenada on a fact-finding mission, having been invited by the country's prime minister. He described his findings before Congress:

Based on my personal observations, discussion, and analysis of the new international airport under construction in Grenada, it is my conclusion that this project is specifically now and has always been for the purpose of economic development and is not for military use.... It is my thought that it is absurd, patronizing, and totally unwarranted for the United States government to charge that this airport poses a military threat to the United States' national security.[24]

In March 1983, President Reagan began issuing warnings about the threat posed to the United States and the Caribbean by the Soviet-Cuban militarization of the Caribbean, evident from the excessively long airplane runway being built and intelligence indicating increased Soviet interest in the island. He said that the runway and the numerous fuel storage tanks were unnecessary for commercial flights, and that evidence indicated that the airport was to become a Cuban-Soviet forward military airbase.[25]

October 1983

On 16 October 1983, Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard seized power and placed Bishop under house arrest. Mass protests against the coup led to Bishop escaping detention and reasserting his authority as the head of the government. He was eventually captured and murdered by a firing squad of soldiers, and several government officials and union leaders loyal to him. The army under Hudson Austin then stepped in and formed a military council to rule the country, placing Scoon under house arrest. The army announced a four-day total curfew during which anyone seen on the streets would be summarily executed.[26]

Members of the Eastern Caribbean Defense Force

The Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), Barbados, and Jamaica all appealed to the United States for assistance.[2] Scoon had requested the invasion through, for his safety, secret diplomatic channels,[27] using the reserve powers vested in the Crown.[28] On 22 October 1983, the Deputy High Commissioner in Bridgetown, Barbados, visited Grenada and reported that Scoon was well and "did not request military intervention, either directly or indirectly".[29] However, on the day after the invasion, Prime Minister of Dominica Eugenia Charles stated the request had come from Scoon, through the OECS, and,[22] in his 2003 autobiography, Survival for Service,[30][31] Scoon maintains he asked the visiting British diplomat to pass along "an oral request" for outside military intervention at this meeting.[22]

On 25 October, the combined forces of the United States and the Regional Security System (RSS) based in Barbados invaded Grenada in an operation code named Operation Urgent Fury. The United States stated that this was done at the request of Barbados' Prime Minister, Tom Adams, and Charles. The invasion was highly criticized by the governments in Canada, Trinidad and Tobago, and the United Kingdom. By a vote of 108 to 9, with 27 abstentions,[32] the United Nations General Assembly condemned it as "a flagrant violation of international law."[33]

First day of the invasion

President Reagan meeting with Congress on the invasion of Grenada in the Cabinet Room, 25 October 1983

H-hour for the invasion was set for 05:00 on 25 October 1983. U.S. troops deployed for Grenada by helicopter from Grantley Adams International Airport on Barbados before daybreak.[34][35] Nearly simultaneously, American paratroopers arrived directly by transport aircraft from bases in the eastern United States and U.S. Marines were airlifted to the island from USS Guam offshore. It was the first major operation conducted by the American military since the Vietnam War.[36] Vice Admiral Joseph Metcalf III, Commander of the Second Fleet, was the overall commander of American forces, designated Joint Task Force 120, which included elements of each military service and multiple special operations units. Fighting continued for several days and the total number of American troops reached some 7,000 along with 300 troops from the Organization of American States, commanded by Brigadier Rudyard Lewis of Barbados.

The main objectives on the first day were for the 75th Ranger Regiment to capture Point Salines International Airport in order for the 82nd Airborne Division to land reinforcements on the island; the 2nd Battalion, 8th Marine Regiment to capture Pearls Airport; and other forces to rescue the American students at the True Blue Campus of St. George's University. In addition, a number of special operations missions were undertaken by Army Delta Force operatives and Navy SEALs to obtain intelligence and secure key individuals and equipment. Many of these missions were plagued by inadequate intelligence, planning, and accurate maps of any kind, and the American forces mostly relied upon tourist maps.

Defending forces

People's Revolutionary Army

The invading forces encountered about 1,500 Grenadian soldiers of the People's Revolutionary Army (PRA) manning defensive positions. The PRA troops were for the most part equipped with light weapons, mostly Kalashnikov-pattern automatic rifles of Soviet bloc origin, and smaller numbers of obsolete SKS carbines and PPSh-41 submachine guns.[37] They had few heavy weapons and no modern air defense systems.[37] The PRA was not regarded as a serious military threat by the US, which was more concerned by the possibility that Cuba would send a large expeditionary force to intervene on behalf of its erstwhile ally.[37]

The PRA did possess eight BTR-60PB armored personnel carriers and two BRDM-2 armored cars delivered as military aid from the Soviet Union in February 1981, but no tanks.[38][39]

Cuban forces in Grenada

The Cuban military presence in Grenada was more complex than initially thought.[17][40] Most of the Cuban civilian expatriates present were also military reservists.[40] Fidel Castro described the Cuban construction crews in Grenada as "workers and soldiers at the same time", claiming the dual nature of their role was consistent with Cuba's "citizen soldier" tradition.[40] At the time of the invasion, there were an estimated 784 Cuban nationals on the island.[41] About 630 of the Cuban nationals listed their occupations as construction workers, another 64 as military personnel, and 18 as dependents.[41] The remainder were medical staff or teachers.[41] Colonel Pedro Tortoló Comas was the highest-ranking Cuban military officer in Grenada in 1983, and he later stated that he issued small arms and ammunition to the construction workers for the purpose of self-defense during the invasion, which may have further blurred the line between their status as civilians and combatants.[41] They were also expressly forbidden to surrender to US military forces if approached.[41] The regular Cuban military personnel on the island were serving as advisers to the PRA at the time.[37] Cuban advisers and instructors deployed with overseas military missions were not confined to non-combat and technical support roles; if the units to which they were attached participated in an engagement, they were expected to fight alongside their foreign counterparts.[42]

Bob Woodward wrote in Veil that captured "military advisors" from socialist countries, including Cuba, were actually accredited diplomats and their dependents. He claimed that none of them took any actual part in the fighting.[43] The US government asserted that most of the supposed Cuban civilian technicians on Grenada were in fact military personnel, including special forces and combat engineers.[44] A summary of the Cuban presence in The Engineer, the official periodical of the US Army Engineer School, noted that "resistance from these well-armed military and paramilitary forces belied claims that they were simply construction crews."[45]

Map of invasion plan

U.S. Special Operations Forces were deployed to Grenada beginning on 23 October, before the 25 October invasion. Navy SEALs from SEAL Team 6 and Air Force combat controllers were air-dropped at sea to perform a reconnaissance mission on Point Salines.[46] The helicopter drop went wrong; four SEALs were lost at sea and their bodies never recovered, causing most people to suspect they had drowned.[17] The four SEALs were Machinist Mate 1st Class Kenneth J. Butcher, Quartermaster 1st Class Kevin E. Lundberg, Hull Technician 1st Class Stephen L. Morris, and Senior Chief Engineman Robert R. Schamberger. In an interview conducted by Bill Salisbury and published on 4 October 1990, Kenneth Butcher's widow claimed that she had gone to Grenada hoping that her husband had survived. She said, "There was this fisherman who said he saw four guys in wetsuits come out of the water, and then two days later he saw four bodies being thrown into the water. So we would like to think they made it, 'cause there was a boat smashed up on the beach. We would like to think the four of them got in that boat, made it to shore, got someplace, and were captured. And they're, you know, gonna come back."[47] The SEAL and Air Force survivors continued their mission, but their boats flooded while evading a patrol boat, causing the mission to be aborted. Another SEAL mission on 24 October was also unsuccessful, due to harsh weather, resulting in little intelligence being gathered in advance of the impending intervention.[48]

Air assault on Point Salines

Rangers conducting the air assault on Point Salines

Alpha and Bravo companies of the 1st Battalion of the 75th Ranger Regiment embarked on C-130s at Hunter Army Airfield at midnight on 24 October to perform an air assault landing on Point Salines International Airport, intending to land at the airport and then disembark. The Rangers had to switch abruptly to a parachute landing when they learned mid-flight that the runway was obstructed. The air drop began at 05:30 on 25 October in the face of moderate resistance from ZU-23 anti-aircraft guns and several BTR-60 armored personnel carriers (APCs), which were knocked out by M67 recoilless rifle fire. AC-130 gunships provided support for the landing. Cuban construction vehicles were commandeered to help clear the airfield, and one even used to provide mobile cover for the Rangers as they moved to seize the heights surrounding the airfield.[49]

The Rangers cleared the airstrip of obstructions by 10:00, and transport planes were able to land and unload additional reinforcements, including M151 Jeeps and members of the Caribbean Peace Force assigned to guard the perimeter and detainees. Starting at 14:00, units began landing at Point Salines from the 82nd Airborne Division under Edward Trobaugh, including battalions of the 325th Infantry Regiment. At 15:30, three BTR-60s of the Grenadian Army Motorized Company counter-attacked, but the Americans repelled them with recoilless rifles and an AC-130.

The Rangers fanned out and secured the surrounding area, negotiating the surrender of over 100 Cubans in an aviation hangar. However, a Jeep-mounted Ranger patrol became lost searching for True Blue Campus and was ambushed, with four killed. The Rangers eventually secured True Blue campus and its students, where they found only 140 students and were told that more were at another campus in Grand Anse. In all, the Rangers lost five men on the first day, but succeeded in securing Point Salines and the surrounding area.[49]

Capture of Pearls Airport

A platoon of Navy SEALs from SEAL Team 4 under Lieutenant Mike Walsh approached the beach near Pearls Airport around midnight on 24 October after evading patrol boats and overcoming stormy weather. They found that the beach was lightly defended but unsuitable for an amphibious landing. The 2nd Battalion of the 8th Marine Regiment then landed south of Pearls Airport using CH-46 Sea Knight and CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters at 05:30 on 25 October; they captured Pearls Airport, encountering only light resistance, including a DShK machine gun which a Marine AH-1 Cobra destroyed.[50]

Raid on Radio Free Grenada

UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters delivered SEAL Team 6 operators in the early morning of 25 October to Radio Free Grenada with the purpose of using the radio station for psychological operations. They captured the station unopposed and destroyed the radio transmitter. However, they were attacked by Grenadian forces in cars and an armored personnel carrier (APC), which forced the lightly armed SEALs to cut open a fence and retreat into the ocean while receiving fire from the APC. The SEALs then reportedly swam to USS Caron.[51] More credible reports say that rather than swimming to Caron, a highly unlikely event, they destroyed the station and fought their way to the water, where they hid from patrolling enemy forces. They swam toward the open sea, and were picked up several hours later after being spotted by a reconnaissance plane.[52]

Raids on Fort Rupert and Richmond Hill Prison

On 25 October, Delta Force and C Company of the 75th Ranger Regiment embarked in UH-60 and MH-6 Little Bird helicopters of Task Force 160 to capture Fort Rupert, where they believed the Revolutionary Council leaders lived, and Richmond Hill Prison, where political prisoners were being held. The raid on Richmond Hill Prison lacked vital intelligence, leaving the attackers unaware of the presence of several anti-aircraft guns and steep hilly terrain that left no room for helicopter landings. Anti-aircraft fire wounded passengers and crew and forced one UH-60 helicopter to crash land, causing another helicopter to land next to it to protect the survivors. One pilot was killed, and the Delta Force operators had to be relieved by a Navy Sea King helicopter.[53] The raid on Fort Rupert, however, was successful in capturing several leaders of the People's Revolutionary Government.[54]

Mission to rescue Governor-General Scoon

A U.S. Army AH-1S Cobra attack helicopter opens fire on an enemy position.

The last major special operation was a mission to rescue Governor-General Scoon from his mansion in Saint George, Grenada. The mission departed late at 05:30 on 25 October from Barbados, resulting in the Grenadian forces being already aware of the invasion and they guarded Scoon closely. The SEAL team entered the mansion without opposition, but BTR-60 armored personnel carriers counter-attacked and trapped the SEALs and governor inside. AC-130 gunships, A-7 Corsair strike planes, and AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters were called in to support the besieged SEALs, but they remained trapped for the next 24 hours.

At 19:00 on 25 October, 250 Marines from G Company of the 2nd Battalion, 8th Marine Regiment landed at Grand Mal Bay equipped with amphibious assault vehicles and four M60 Patton tanks; they relieved the Navy SEALs the following morning, allowing Governor Scoon, his wife, and nine aides to be safely evacuated at 10:00 that day. The Marine tank crews continued advancing in the face of sporadic resistance, knocking out a BRDM-2 armored car.[39] G Company subsequently defeated and overwhelmed the Grenadian defenders at Fort Frederick.[50]

Airstrikes

Navy A-7 Corsairs and Marine AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters made airstrikes against Fort Rupert and Fort Frederick. An A-7 raid on Fort Frederick targeting anti-aircraft guns hit a nearby mental hospital, killing 18 civilians.[2]: 62  Two Marine AH-1T Cobras and a UH-60 Blackhawk were shot down in a raid against Fort Frederick, resulting in five casualties.[50]

Second day of the invasion

Initial troop invasion areas

General Trobaugh of the 82nd Airborne Division had two goals on the second day: securing the perimeter around Salines Airport, and rescuing American students held in Grand Anse. The Army lacked undamaged helicopters after the losses on the first day and consequently had to delay the student rescue until they made contact with Marine forces.

Morning ambushes

Early on the morning of 26 October, Cuban forces ambushed a patrol from the 2nd Battalion of the 325th Infantry Regiment near the village of Calliste. The American patrol suffered six wounded and two killed, including the commander of Company B, CPT Michael F. Ritz and squad leader SSG Gary L. Epps. Navy airstrikes and an artillery bombardment by 105mm howitzers targeting the main Cuban encampment eventually led to their surrender at 08:30. American forces pushed on to the village of Frequente, where they discovered a Cuban weapons cache reportedly sufficient to equip six battalions. Cuban forces ambushed a reconnaissance platoon mounted on gun-jeeps, but the jeeps returned fire, and a nearby infantry unit added mortar fire; the Cubans suffered four casualties with no American losses. Cuban resistance largely ended after these engagements.[49]

Rescue at Grand Anse

On the afternoon of 26 October, Rangers of the 2nd Battalion of the 75th Ranger Regiment mounted Marine CH-46 Sea Knight helicopters to launch an air assault on the Grand Anse campus. The campus police offered light resistance before fleeing, wounding one Ranger, and one of the helicopters crashed on approach after its blade hit a palm tree. The Rangers evacuated the 233 American students by CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters, but the students informed them that there was a third campus with Americans at Prickly Bay.[50] A squad of 11 Rangers was accidentally left behind; they departed on a rubber raft which was picked up by USS Caron at 23:00.

Third day of the invasion and after

Bombardment of Point Calivigny

By 27 October, organized resistance was rapidly diminishing, but the American forces did not yet realize this. The 2nd Battalion, 8th Marines continued advancing along the coast and capturing additional towns, meeting little resistance, although one patrol did encounter a single BTR-60 during the night, dispatching it with a M72 LAW. The 325th Infantry Regiment advanced toward the capital of Saint George, capturing Grand Anse and discovering 200 American students whom they had missed the first day. They continued to the town of Ruth Howard and Saint George, meeting only scattered resistance. An air-naval gunfire liaison team called in an A-7 airstrike and accidentally hit the command post of the 2nd Brigade, wounding 17 troops, one of whom died.[49]

The Army had reports that PRA forces were amassing at the Calivigny Barracks, only five kilometers from the Point Salines airfield. They organized an air assault by the 2nd Battalion of the 75th Ranger Regiment preceded by a preparatory bombardment by field howitzers (which mostly missed, their shells falling into the ocean), A-7s, AC-130s, and USS Caron. However, the Blackhawk helicopters began dropping off troops near the barracks but they approached too fast. One of them crash landed and the two behind it collided with it, killing three and wounding four. The barracks were deserted.

In the following days, resistance ended entirely and the Army and Marines spread across the island, arresting PRA officials, seizing caches of weapons, and seeing to the repatriation of Cuban engineers. On 1 November, two companies from the 2/8 Marines made a combined sea and helicopter landing on the island of Carriacou 17 miles (27 km) northeast of Grenada. The 19 Grenadian soldiers defending the island surrendered without a fight. This was the last military action of the campaign.[55]

Outcome

A Marine Corps Sea Knight helicopter sits on the beach after being disabled during the Grand Anse rescue on 26 October 1983.

It was confirmed Scoon had been in contact with the Queen ahead of the invasion; however, the Queen's office denied knowledge of any request for military action and the Queen was "extremely upset" by the invasion of one of her realms. The only document signed by the Governor-General and asking for military assistance was dated after the invasion, which fueled speculation that the United States had used Scoon as an excuse for its incursion into Grenada.[22]

Official U.S. sources state that some of the opponents were well-prepared and well-positioned and put up stubborn resistance, to the extent that the Americans called in two battalions of reinforcements on the evening of 26 October. The total naval and air superiority of the American forces had overwhelmed the defenders. Nearly 8,000 Soldiers, Sailors, Airmen, and Marines had participated in Operation Urgent Fury, along with 353 Caribbean allies from the Caribbean Peace Forces. American forces sustained 19 killed and 116 wounded; Cuban forces sustained 25 killed, 59 wounded, and 638 combatants captured. Grenadian forces suffered 45 killed and 358 wounded; at least 24 civilians were also killed, 18 of whom died in the accidental bombing of a Grenadian mental hospital.[2]: 62  The US troops also destroyed a significant amount of Grenada's military hardware, including six BTR-60 APCs and a BRDM-2 armored car.[39] A second BRDM-2 armored car was impounded and shipped back to Marine Corps Base Quantico for inspection.[56]

Legality of the invasion

The US government defended its invasion of Grenada as an action to protect American citizens living on the island, including medical students, and had been carried out at the request of the Governor-General.[22] Deputy Secretary of State Kenneth W. Dam said that action was necessary to "resolve" what Article 28 of the charter of the Organization of American States (O.A.S.) refers to as "a situation that might endanger the peace". He added that the OAS charter and the UN charter both "recognize the competence of regional security bodies in ensuring regional peace and stability",[57] referring to the decision by the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States to approve the invasion.

The UN Charter prohibits the use of force by member states except in cases of self-defense or when specifically authorized by the UN Security Council. The UN Security Council had not authorized this invasion.[58][59][60][61] Similarly, the United Nations General Assembly adopted General Assembly Resolution 38/7 by a vote of 108 to 9 with 27 abstentions, which "deeply deplores the armed intervention in Grenada, which constitutes a flagrant violation of international law".[16] A similar resolution in the United Nations Security Council received widespread support but was vetoed by the United States.[62][63]

Reaction in the United States

Leaflet distributed during the invasion by 9th PSYOP Bn

Time magazine described the invasion as having "broad popular support". A congressional study group concluded that the invasion had been justified, as most members felt that American students at the university near a contested runway could have been taken hostage as American diplomats in Iran had been four years previously. The group's report caused House Speaker Tip O'Neill to change his position on the issue from opposition to support.[64]

M102 howitzers of 1st Bn 320th FA, 82D Abn Div firing during battle

However, some members of the study group dissented from its findings. Congressman Louis Stokes (D, Ohio) stated: "Not a single American child nor single American national was in any way placed in danger or placed in a hostage situation prior to the invasion". The Congressional Black Caucus denounced the invasion, and seven Democratic congressmen introduced an unsuccessful resolution to impeach President Reagan, led by Ted Weiss.[64]

Medical students in Grenada speaking to Ted Koppel on 25 October 1983 edition of his newscast Nightline stated that they were safe and did not feel that their lives were in danger. Medical students told Koppel the next evening how grateful they were for the invasion and the Army Rangers, which probably saved their lives. State Department officials had assured the medical students that they would be able to complete their medical school education in the United States.[65][66]

An anti-war march attended by over 50,000 people, including Burlington, Vermont Mayor Bernie Sanders, was held in Washington, D.C. The march received support from presidential candidate Jesse Jackson.[67]

International reaction

The United Nations General Assembly adopted General Assembly Resolution 38/7 on 2 November 1983 by a vote of 108 to 9 which "deeply deplores the armed intervention in Grenada, which constitutes a flagrant violation of international law and of the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of that State".[16] It went on to deplore "the death of innocent civilians" and the "killing of the Prime Minister and other prominent Grenadians", and it called for an "immediate cessation of the armed intervention" and demanded, "that free elections be organized".

This was the first overthrow of a Communist government by armed means since the end of World War II. The Soviet Union said that Grenada had been the object of United States threats, that the invasion violated international law, and that no small nation would find itself safe if the aggression were not rebuffed. The governments of some countries stated that the United States intervention was a return to the era of barbarism. The governments of other countries said the United States had violated several treaties and conventions to which it was a party.[68] A similar resolution was discussed in the United Nations Security Council but it was ultimately vetoed by the United States.[62][69][63]

President Ronald Reagan was asked if he was concerned by the lopsided 108–9 vote in the UN General Assembly. He said, "it didn't upset my breakfast at all".[70]

Grenada is part of the Commonwealth of Nations and the intervention was opposed by Commonwealth members including the United Kingdom, Trinidad and Tobago, and Canada.[2]: 50  British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, a close ally of Reagan on other matters, personally opposed it. Reagan told her that it might happen; she did not know for sure that it was coming until three hours before. At 12:30 on the morning of the invasion, Thatcher sent a message to Reagan:

This action will be seen as intervention by a Western country in the internal affairs of a small independent nation, however unattractive its regime. I ask you to consider this in the context of our wider East/West relations and of the fact that we will be having in the next few days to present to our Parliament and people the siting of Cruise missiles in this country. I must ask you to think most carefully about these points. I cannot conceal that I am deeply disturbed by your latest communication. You asked for my advice. I have set it out and hope that even at this late stage you will take it into account before events are irrevocable[71][72] (the full text remains classified).

Reagan told Thatcher before anyone else that the invasion would begin in a few hours, but ignored her complaints. She publicly supported the action. Reagan phoned to apologize for the miscommunication,[73] and the long-term friendly relationship endured.[74][75]

Aftermath and legacy

American students waiting to be evacuated from Grenada

The American and Caribbean governments quickly reaffirmed Scoon as Queen Elizabeth II's sole legitimate representative in Grenada, and hence was the only lawful authority on the island. In accordance with Commonwealth constitutional practice, Scoon assumed power as interim head of government and formed an advisory council which named Nicholas Brathwaite as chairman, pending new elections.[27][28] The New National Party won the elections in December 1984 and formed a government led by Prime Minister Herbert Blaize.

American forces remained in Grenada after combat operations finished in December as part of Operation Island Breeze. Elements remaining performed security missions and assisted members of the Caribbean Peacekeeping Force and the Royal Grenadian Police Force, including military police, special forces, and a specialized intelligence detachment. The Point Salines International Airport was renamed in honour of Prime Minister Maurice Bishop on 29 May 2009, his 65th birthday.[76][77] Hundreds of Grenadians turned out to commemorate the honouring of the event. Prime Minister Tillman Thomas gave the keynote speech and referred to the renaming as an act of the Grenadian people coming home to themselves.[78] He also hoped that it would help bring closure to a chapter of denial in Grenada's history.

The United States Invasion of Grenada has since been dubbed the most significant military intervention during the Cold War since Vietnam. Some Grenadians still experience strong and unresolved emotions about occupation. In its legacy, the island still cannot agree on whether the United States saved the country from further political unrest or destroyed the possibility of a socialist nation of people wanting to 'slave for themselves' after centuries of slavery and exploitation.[13]

United States

The invasion showed problems with the American "information apparatus", which Time magazine described as still being in "some disarray" three weeks after the invasion. For example, the State Department falsely claimed that a mass grave had been discovered which held 100 bodies of islanders who had been killed by communist forces.[64] Major General Norman Schwarzkopf, deputy commander of the invasion force, said that 160 Grenadian soldiers and 71 Cubans had been killed during the invasion; the Pentagon had given a count of 59 Cuban and Grenadian deaths.[64] Ronald H. Cole's report for the Joint Chiefs of Staff showed an even lower count.[2]

Also of concern were the problems that the invasion showed with the military. There was a lack of intelligence about Grenada which exacerbated the difficulties faced by the quickly assembled invasion force. For example, they did not know that the students were actually at two different campuses, and there was a 30-hour delay in reaching students at the second campus.[64] Maps provided to soldiers on the ground were tourist maps on which military grid reference lines were drawn by hand to report locations of units and request artillery and aircraft fire support. They also did not show topography and were not marked with crucial positions. Navy ships providing naval gunfire and Marine, Air Force, and Navy fighter-bomber support aircraft providing close air support mistakenly killed American ground forces due to differences in charts and location coordinates, data, and methods of calling for fire support. Communications between services were also not compatible and hindered the coordination of operations.[79] The landing strip was drawn by hand on the map given to some members of the invasion force.[80]

Reagan attempted to use the invasion of Grenada to end Vietnam Syndrome, a term used in reference to the American public's aversion to overseas conflicts that resulted from the Vietnam War.[81][82][83][84] After the invasion, on 13 December 1983, Reagan asserted that "our days of weakness are over. Our military forces are back on their feet and standing tall."[85]

Goldwater–Nichols Act

Calivigny barracks before and after being bombed

The Department of Defense recognized a need for improved communications and coordination among the branches of the American military. Congress investigated many of the problems and passed the Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 (Pub. L.99–433).[17] This act reworked the command structure of the military, making the most sweeping changes to the Department of Defense since the department was established in the National Security Act of 1947. It increased the power of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and advanced the concept of unified joint forces organized under one command.

Other

SGU Campus Memorial

25 October is a national holiday in Grenada, called Thanksgiving Day, to commemorate the invasion. St. George's University (SGU) built a monument on its True Blue campus to honor the American servicemen killed during the invasion, and marks the day with an annual memorial ceremony.

On 29 May 2009, the Grenadian government changed the name of Point Salines International Airport to Maurice Bishop International Airport.[76][77]

To help Nicaragua establish rural schools, Cuba supplied primary school teachers to the country.[86] After the United States invasion of Grenada, Cuban concerns that the United States might also invade Nicaragua increased and Cuba removed its female primary school teachers from the country.[86]: 321 

Order of battle

Operation Urgent Fury

Vice Admiral Joseph Metcalf, III, COMSECONDFLT, became Commander of Joint Task Force 120 (CJTF 120) and commanded units from the Air Force, Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard from the MARG flagship USS Guam. Rear Admiral Richard C. Berry (COMCRUDESGRU Eight) (Commander Task Group 20) supported the task force on the aircraft carrier USS Independence. Commanding Officer USS Guam (Task Force 124) was assigned the mission of seizing Pearls Airport and the port of Grenville, and of neutralizing any opposing forces in the area.[87] Simultaneously, Army Rangers in Task Force 123 would secure points at the southern end of the island, including the airfield under construction near Point Salines. The 82d Airborne Division (Task Force 121) were designated to follow and assume the security at Point Salines once it was seized by Task Force 123. Task Group 20.5, a carrier battle group built around USS Independence, and Air Force elements would support the ground forces.[87]

Ground forces

Commander-in-Chief of The Military Airlift Command General Thomas M. Ryan Jr., piloting a U.S. Air Force Lockheed C-130 Hercules aircraft en route from Barbados to Grenada, November 1983

Air Force

Two formations of U.S. warships took part in the invasion. USS Independence carrier battle group; and Marine Amphibious Readiness Group, flagship USS Guam, USS Barnstable County, USS Manitowoc, USS Fort Snelling, and USS Trenton. Carrier Group Four was allocated the designation Task Group 20.5 for the operation.

Independence carrier battle group
Surface warships Carrier Air Wing Six (CVW-6) squadrons embarked aboard flagship Independence
USS Independence Fighter Squadron 14 (VF-14): 13 F-14A Carrier Airborne Early Warning Squadron 122 (VAW-122): 4 E-2C
USS Coontz Fighter Squadron 32 (VF-32): 14 F-14A Electronic Attack Squadron 131 (VAQ-131): 4 EA-6B
USS Moosbrugger Attack Squadron 176 (VA-176): 16 A-6E/KA-6D Helicopter Antisubmarine Squadron (15 HS-15): 6 SH-3H
USS Caron Attack Squadron 87 (VA-87): 12 A-7E Sea Control Squadron 28 (VS-28): 10 S-3A
USS Clifton Sprague Attack Squadron 15 (VA-15): 12 A-7E COD: 1 C-1A
USS Suribachi ---- ----

In addition, the following ships supported naval operations:

USS Kidd, USS Aquila, USS Aubrey Fitch, USS Briscoe, USS Nicholson, USS Portsmouth, USS Recovery, USS Saipan, USS Sampson, USS Samuel Eliot Morison, USS John L. Hall, USS Silversides, USS Taurus, USNS Neosho, USS Caloosahatchee, USS Richmond K. Turner and USS Edson.

Coast Guard

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Clarke, Jeffrey J. Operation Urgent Fury: Invasion of Grenada, October (PDF). United States Army. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cole, Ronald (1997). "Operation Urgent Fury: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Grenada" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 November 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2006.
  3. ↑ "Medals Outnumber G.I.'s in Grenada Assault". The New York Times. 30 March 1984. Archived from the original on 13 February 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). McFarland. p. 645. ISBN 978-0786474707.
  5. ↑ "Study Faults U.S. Military Tactics in Grenada Invasion". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
  6. ↑ "The Invasion of Grenada". PBS.org. Archived from the original on 20 March 2017. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
  7. ↑ Russell, Lee; Mendez, Albert (2012). Grenada 1983. London: Osprey Publishing. p. 45.
  8. ↑ "Soldiers During the Invasion of Grenada". CardCow Vintage Postcards. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
  9. ↑ Kukielski, Phil (18 September 2013). "How Grenada reshaped the US military". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
  10. ↑ Seabury, Paul; McDougall, Walter A., eds. (1984). The Grenada Papers. San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies. ISBN 0-917616-68-5. OCLC 11233840.
  11. ↑ Scoon, Sir Paul (2003). Survival for Service: My Experiences as Governor General of Grenada. Oxford: Macmillan Caribbean. pp. 136, 145. ISBN 0-333-97064-0. OCLC 54489557.
  12. ↑ Moore, Charles (2015). "Chapter 5: Reagan plays her false". Margaret Thatcher: The Authorized Biography, Volume Two: Everything She Wants. Great Britain: Allen Lane, Penguin Books. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-713-99288-5. OCLC 922929186. OL 27339067M. pp. 118–119: On 20 October, the administration's Crisis Preplanning Group met and discussed a rescue plan for the students, but also the possibility of overthrowing the hostile Grenadian regime. According to Lawrence Eagleburger, the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs at the State Department, 'The prime motivation was to get rid of that son of a bitch [General Austin] before the Cubans got any further embedded … The students were the pretext … but we would not have done it simply because of the students.'
  13. 1 2 Lewis, Patsy (1999). "Revisiting the Grenada Invasion: The Oecs' Role, and Its Impact on Regional and International Politics". Social and Economic Studies. 48 (3): 85–120. ISSN 0037-7651.
  14. ↑ "Caribbean Islands – A Regional Security System". country-data.com. Archived from the original on 26 April 2017. Retrieved 18 November 2008.
  15. ↑ Moore, Charles (2016). Margaret Thatcher: At her Zenith. p. 130.
  16. 1 2 3 "United Nations General Assembly resolution 38/7". United Nations. 2 November 1983. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Kukielski, Philip (2019). The U.S. Invasion of Grenada: legacy of a flawed victory. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. pp. 213–214. ISBN 978-1-4766-7879-5. OCLC 1123182247.
  18. ↑ Burrowes, Reynold A. (1988). Revolution and rescue in Grenada: an account of the U.S.–Caribbean invasion. New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-26066-4. OCLC 17943224.
  19. ↑ Abdelfatah; Rund; Arablouei, Ramtin; Caine, Julie; Kaplan-Levenson, Laine; Wu, Lawrence; Yvellez, Victor; Charney, Tamar; Powers, Martine (29 July 2021). "Grenada: Nobody's Backyard".
  20. ↑ "How the Invasion of Grenada Exposed the Brutality of the US Military". TheCollector. 19 July 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
  21. ↑ The Grenada Revolution Documentary - Part 1, retrieved 9 December 2023
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 Murphy, Philip (2013), Monarchy and the End of Empire, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 169, ISBN 978-0-19-921423-5, retrieved 28 April 2023
  23. ↑ Payne, Anthony (1984). Grenada : revolution and invasion. Sutton, Paul K., Thorndike, Tony. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-312-35042-2. OCLC 10548141.
  24. ↑ Peter Collier, David Horowitz (January 1987). "Another 'Low Dishonest Decade' on the Left". Commentary.
  25. ↑ Gailey, Phil; Warren Weaver Jr. (26 March 1983). "Grenada". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 March 2008.
  26. ↑ Burrowes, Reynold A. (1988). Revolution and Rescue in Grenada: An Account of the U.S.-Caribbean Invasion. Greenwood Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-313-26066-7. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  27. 1 2 Sir Paul Scoon, G-G of Grenada, at 2:36 on YouTube
  28. 1 2 Martin, Douglas (9 September 2013). "Paul Scoon, Who Invited Grenada Invaders, Dies at 78". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  29. ↑ Thatcher, Margaret (2011). The Downing Street Years. London: HarperCollins. p. 841. ISBN 9780062029102.
  30. ↑ "Paul Scoon; had key role in invasion of Grenada". BostonGlobe.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2017. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
  31. ↑ Martin, Douglas (8 September 2013). "Paul Scoon, Who Invited Grenada Invaders, Dies at 78". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  32. ↑ "Assembly calls for cessation of 'armed intervention' in Grenada". UN Chronicle. 1984. Archived from the original on 27 June 2007.
  33. ↑ "United Nations General Assembly resolution 38/7". United Nations. 2 November 1983. Archived from the original on 19 November 2000.
  34. ↑ Carter, Gercine (26 September 2010). "Ex-airport boss recalls Cubana crash". Nation Newspaper. Archived from the original on 24 January 2012. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
  35. ↑ Cozier, Tony (12 March 1985). "Barbados Prime Minister Dies Of Heart Attack". Associated Press. Retrieved 7 February 2023.
  36. ↑ Kukielski, Phil (8 September 2013). "How Grenada reshaped the US military". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
  37. 1 2 3 4 Harding, Steve (1984). Air War Grenada. Missoula, Montana: Pictorial Histories Publishing Company. pp. 8–9. ISBN 9780933126527.
  38. ↑ Huchthausen, Peter (2004). America's Splendid Little Wars: A Short History of U.S. Engagements from the Fall of Saigon to Baghdad. New York: Penguin. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-14-200465-4.
  39. 1 2 3 Grenada 1983 by Lee E. Russell and M. Albert Mendez, 1985 Osprey Publishing Ltd., ISBN 0-85045-583-9 pp. 28–48.
  40. 1 2 3 Dominguez, Jorge (1 January 1989). To Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba's Foreign Policy. Center for International Affairs. pp. 154–253. ISBN 978-0674893252.
  41. 1 2 3 4 5 Domínguez, Jorge I. (1989). To Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba's Foreign Policy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-89325-5. pp. 168–169
  42. ↑ Gleijeses, Piero (2002). Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington and Africa, 1959–1976. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-807-82647-8.
  43. ↑ Woodward, Bob (1987). Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA 1981–1987. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780671601171.
  44. ↑ Leckie, Robert (1998). The Wars of America. Castle Books. ISBN 9780785809142.
  45. ↑ "A Caribbean Arms Cache". Engineer. Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri: United States Army Engineer School. 13 (4): 31. December 1983.
  46. ↑ Timeline – World History Documentaries (22 April 2017). "A Close Look At History's Great Military Blunders | Politics By Other Means". Archived from the original on 28 November 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2023 – via YouTube.
  47. ↑ "A Grenada SEAL widow tells her story | San Diego Reader". www.sandiegoreader.com. Archived from the original on 9 July 2020. Retrieved 8 July 2020.
  48. ↑ "SEAL History: Navy SEALs in Grenada Operation Urgent Fury". Navy SEAL Museum. Archived from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
  49. 1 2 3 4 Stuart, Richard W. (2008). Operation Urgent Fury: The Invasion of Grenada, October 1983 (PDF). U.S. Army. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
  50. 1 2 3 4 Kreisher, Otto. "Operation Urgent Fury – Grenada". Marine Corps Association & Foundation. Archived from the original on 19 April 2016. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
  51. ↑ "Caron (DD-970)". public2.nhhcaws.local. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
  52. ↑ "SEAL History: Navy SEALs in Grenada Operation Urgent Fury". Navy Seal Museum. National Navy UDT-SEAL Museum. Archived from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 7 August 2021.
  53. ↑ Kukielski, Philip (2019). The U.S. Invasion of Grenada : legacy of a flawed victory. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. pp. 66–68. ISBN 978-1-4766-7879-5. OCLC 1123182247.
  54. ↑ "Turning the Tide: Operation Urgent Fury". Combat Reform. Archived from the original on 7 April 2016. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
  55. ↑ Kreisher, Otto (October 2003). "Operation Urgent Fury – Grenada". Marine Corps Association and Foundation. Archived from the original on 19 April 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  56. ↑ Wayne Tommell, Anthony (1986). "Soviet Vehicle in Collection Thanks to 2d AAV Bn" (PDF). Fortitudine. Vol. 15, no. 4. p. 21. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
  57. ↑ Smith, Hedrick; Times, Special To the New York (15 November 1983). "U.S. DEFENDING GRENADA ACTION BEFORE O.A.S." The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 7 February 2023.
  58. ↑ Karas, John M.; Goodman, Jerald M. (1984). "The United States Action in Grenada: An Exercise in Realpolitik". University of Miami Inter-American Law Review. 16 (1): 53–108.
  59. ↑ Robert j, Beck (2008). "Grenada". Max Planck Encyclopedias of International Law. Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International. doi:10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/e1292. ISBN 978-0-19-923169-0. Archived from the original on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2023 – via Oxford Public International Law.
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  63. 1 2 "United Nations Security Council vetoes". United Nations. 28 October 1983. Archived from the original on 28 June 2017. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
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  68. ↑ United Nations Yearbook, Volume 37, 1983, Department of Public Information, United Nations, New York
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  70. ↑ "Reagan: Vote loss in U.N. 'didn't upset my breakfast'". The Spokesman-Review. 4 November 1983. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
  71. ↑ "Thatcher letter to Reagan ("deeply disturbed" at U.S. plans) [memoirs extract]". Margaret Thatcher Foundation. 25 October 1983. Archived from the original on 27 December 2008. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
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  76. 1 2 "St. Vincent's Prime Minister to officiate at renaming of Grenada international airport". Caribbean Net News newspaper. 26 May 2009.
  77. 1 2 "Bishop's Honour: Grenada airport renamed after ex-PM". Caribbean News Agency (CANA). 30 May 2009. Archived from the original on 12 June 2009.
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  80. ↑ Kukielski, Philip (2019). The U.S. Invasion of Grenada : legacy of a flawed victory. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-4766-7879-5. OCLC 1123182247.
  81. ↑ Sandler, Norman D. (28 May 1984). "Reagan's view of Vietnam War unwavering". United Press International. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020. Reagan, who blamed Congress for the outcome in Vietnam and in 1978 called the conflict 'a long, bloody war which our government refused to win,' contends his arms buildup, invasion of Grenada and dispatch of U.S. forces to world trouble spots signaled the end of 'the Vietnam Syndrome.'
  82. ↑ Beinart, Peter (7 June 2010). "Think Again: Ronald Reagan". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 30 March 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020. His biographer Lou Cannon calls him "shameless" in using Grenada to revive America's Vietnam-wounded pride.
  83. ↑ Chen, Edwin; Richter, Paul (2 March 1991). "U.S. Shakes Off Torment of Vietnam". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020. The Reagan Administration sought to shake off the Vietnam syndrome as it invaded Grenada in 1983 and bombed Libya in 1986.
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  85. ↑ Clines, Francis X. (13 December 1983). "Military of U.S. 'Standing Tall,' Reagan Asserts". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
  86. 1 2 Gleijeses, Piero (2013). Visions of Freedom: Havana, Washington, Pretoria, and the Struggle for Southern Africa, 1976 - 1991. The New Cold War History series. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-4696-2832-5.
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Primary sources

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