In political science, the urban–rural political divide is a phenomenon in which predominantly urban areas and predominantly rural areas within a country have sharply diverging political views.[1] It is a form of political polarization. Typically, urban areas exhibit more liberal, left-wing, cosmopolitan and/or multiculturalist political attitudes, while rural areas exhibit more conservative, right-wing, right-wing populist and/or nationalist political attitudes.[2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9]

An urban–rural political divide has been observed worldwide in many nations including the United States,[2][3][4][5] the United Kingdom,[6][7] France,[8] Australia,[10] Hungary,[4][11] Poland,[4][11] Belgium,[8] Italy,[8] the Netherlands,[9] Turkey,[4][11] Thailand,[4] Malaysia,[4] and Canada.[12] Political divisions between urban and rural areas have been noted by political scientists and journalists to have intensified in the 21st century, and in particular since the Great Recession.[8] In Europe, the increasing urban-rural polarization has coincided with the decline of center-left parties and concomitant rise of far-left and far-right parties, a trend known as Pasokification.

By country

Australia

Australia has two major political parties: the centre-left Labor Party and the centre-right Coalition. The Coalition is a political grouping and formal coalition between two centre-right parties: the Liberal Party (which is mostly present in urban areas) and the National Party (which is present in regional and rural areas). The Coalition is formal on the federal level and in two states (New South Wales and Victoria), but is informal in Western Australia and does not exist in South Australia (where the Nationals have limited activity), Tasmania (where the Nationals have limited activity and are unregistered) and the Australian Capital Territory (where the Nationals do not exist); and the two parties have merged in Queensland (as the Liberal National Party) and the Northern Territory (as the Country Liberal Party).

There is a political divide between urban (particularly inner-city) regions and the rest of the country (regional, rural and remote areas). This divide is present nationwide except in the Australian Capital Territory. Regional and rural areas, as well as the outer-suburbs of many cities (namely Sydney), are more conservative than inner-city electorates.

Aside from the two major parties, the right-wing One Nation party gathers most of its support in regional areas, particularly in areas with a history of mining, such as the Hunter Region in New South Wales and several regions of Queensland, while the left-wing Greens gather most of their support from progressive voters, especially younger voters, in the inner-city suburbs of capital cities (especially Melbourne, Brisbane and Canberra, as well as (to a lesser extent) Sydney). Teal independents have also seen a rise in support in inner-city parts of Sydney, Melbourne and Perth that normally vote Liberal, as well as in inner-city Hobart.

Historically, the most conservative states on the federal level are the northern states and territories (Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory) and Tasmania. In modern times, Queensland is the most conservative while Tasmania is becoming more conservative-leaning, whereas Western Australia has shifted to the Labor Party (even delivering Anthony Albanese a victory at the 2022 federal election). These two states are unique in that they are the only states where less than 50% of the population lives in the capital city (Brisbane and Hobart, respectively) and were considered the states that delivered Scott Morrison a victory at the 2019 federal election.

The Nationals are dominant in regional and rural areas, while the Liberals are dominant in many outer-suburbs. In Sydney, there is a "north–south" divide; traditionally, parts of Sydney north of Sydney Harbour vote Liberal (with some exceptions), while areas south of Sydney Harbour vote Labor (with the exception of the Sutherland Shire, which includes the federal seats of Cook and Hughes). Currently, the Liberal Party holds just three federal seats in Sydney that are located south of Sydney Harbour: Banks, Cook and Hughes.

In regional and rural electorates, the Coalition holds 31 federal seats, while Labor holds just 12 (none of which are in Queensland, Western Australia or South Australia and only two (Franklin and Lyons) in Tasmania, the former including parts of Hobart). In comparison, the Coalition holds only a few federal seats in the capital cities; seven in Sydney, three in Melbourne, four in Brisbane, two in Perth and one in Adelaide. They hold none in Canberra, Hobart or Darwin.

Nevertheless, liberal conservatism is the dominant form of conservatism and is the ideology of the Coalition, so the regional-rural divide does not affect issues such as same-sex marriage (which was legalised under the Coalition government of Malcolm Turnbull). Most electorates, regional, rural and metropolitan, recorded a majority "yes" vote in the 2018 Marriage Law Postal Survey. The majority of electorates that recorded a majority "no" vote were electorates in certain outer-suburbs of capital cities (namely Greater Western Sydney but also parts of Melbourne) with large Christian and Muslim communities. While some of these were Liberal-held, many of them were Labor-held. Only three regional electorates recorded a majority "no" vote, all of which were in Queensland: Groom (held by the LNP), Kennedy (held by the right-wing Katter's Australian Party) and Maranoa (held by the LNP).

The 2023 Australian Indigenous Voice referendum results also demonstrated some evidence of an urban–rural political divide.[13] The four electorates returning more than 70% of votes in favour of Yes were the namesake electorates centred on the CBDs of Melbourne, Sydney and Canberra, as well as Prime Minister Albanese's inner Sydney electorate of Grayndler. By contrast, the only five electorates to return less than 20% of votes in favour of Yes — Maranoa, Flynn, Capricornia, Hinkler and Dawson — were all rural electorates in southern and central Queensland.

Canada

Research published in 2021 by professors David Armstrong and Zack Taylor of Western University and Jack Lucas from the University of Calgary suggests that, like in Europe both the centre left (Liberals) and left (New Democratic Party, NDP) are over represented in urban constituencies. However, unlike the Liberals, the NDP still maintains support in certain rural areas with a history of unionized extractive industries such as mining and logging, which are much more important than urban manufacturing in the history of Canadian labour movement in many regions, particularly Northern Ontario and the British Columbia Interior where the NDP are still competitive. However, in primarily agricultural and petroleum-producing regions such as the Prairie Provinces which was the first heartland of the NDP, the Conservative Party of Canada has dominated since its re-formation in 2003, building on a trend that saw its predecessor parties skewing towards over representation in rural areas since the 1960s. During the 1990s the Liberals lost some of the traditional support they once had in rural Quebec, and by the new millennium, the Liberals were almost entirely limited to winning urban and suburban constituencies (outside of Atlantic Canada) while the Conservatives were nearly shut out of the largest cities, further accelerating the trend.[12] As of 2021 the Liberals held 86 seats in the three largest metropolitan areas compared to just eight for the Conservatives.[14]

Trends in provincial elections are broadly similar. After the 2023 Alberta election which saw the United Conservatives win a majority government despite losing many urban seats, Professor Paul Kellogg of Athabasca University called the urban-rural divide "one of the most important political questions of our generation".[15] Professor Jared Wesley, a political scientist at the University of Alberta, suggested that although the policy differences between the two main parties in Alberta are small, each one appeals to different cohort of people based primarily on a sense of identity, where many rural voters instinctively label themselves as "conservative" even if they have centrist or centre-left policy preferences. To a lesser extent urban voters may also label themselves as "progressive" without regard to policy preferences, but the conservative identity has a much older and more durable image in the Albertan cultural imagination.[16]

After the 2022 Quebec provincial election, columnist Emile Nicolas described the province as being split in two, between a liberal Montreal as an island in an otherwise conservative and nationalist province[17]

China

The urban-rural conflict in China has been a complicated and long-standing problem, which results from the economic, social, and cultural disparities between these two areas. One of the major reasons for this conflict is the unequal distribution of wealth and resources between urban and rural regions, where urban areas experience rapid growth in population and wealth, and rural areas lose millions of migrants to the city. The rural economy lags behind, leading to a shortage of basic infrastructure such as water, electricity, and transportation. Additionally, rural-urban migration is another contributing factor that causes overcrowding, housing shortages, and increased job competition in urban areas. Furthermore, cultural and social differences between urban and rural communities can also lead to misunderstandings and conflicts. Despite recognizing the problem, the Chinese government has implemented several policies such as promoting rural development, improving rural infrastructure, and increasing access to education and healthcare to address the issue.[18]

United States

Urban-rural conflict in the American South has a complicated and diverse history, with numerous factors contributing to tensions between the two populations.[19] One of the main causes of this tension is the economic divide that has arisen between urban and rural areas. While towns have focused on railways, banking, trade, and absentee land owners, The few cities in the South were river or ocean ports, or textile manufacturing centers. The rural South has been agriculturally oriented regarding cotton, tobacco and other crops, resulting in economic and social disparities. Additionally, cultural and political differences have contributed to conflict, with rural areas often being more conservative and religious while urban areas tend to be more diverse and liberal. The legacy of racial inequality in the South has also played a significant role in this tension, with many rural areas still struggling with poverty and limited access to education and healthcare. In the 1880-1940 era Southern demagogues appealed to a poor agrarian base that demanded respect from the much richer business-oriented small towns.[20] In the 20th century rural America, both North and South, used gerrymandering to maintain more power in Congress and state legislatures.[21]

1896 presidential election

In the 1896 United States presidential election, there was a significant divide in voting patterns between urban and rural areas. The Republican candidate, William McKinley, was supported by urban areas, particularly in the northeast and Midwest, where the manufacturing industry was hurt by the economic recession underway. McKinley's message of high tariffs and a gold-backed currency resonated with urban voters, who saw these policies as essential for restoring industrial growth and stability. Factory workers voted for McKinley because he promised jobs. On the other hand, the Democratic candidate, William Jennings Bryan, was supported by rural areas, particularly in the South and West. Bryan demanded rapid inflation in the price of wheat, cotton and other farm products through the use of free silver as money, His populist economic platform appealed to farmers, who were struggling with low crop prices and debt. Urban workers feared that free silver would raise prices but not wages.

Farmers versus industrial workers

The Bryan campaign appealed first of all to farmers. It told urban workers that their return to prosperity was possible only if the farmers prospered first. Bryan made the point bluntly in the "Cross of Gold" speech, delivered in Chicago just 25 years after that city had indeed burned down:

"Burn down your cities and leave our farms, and your cities will spring up again; but destroy our farms, and the grass will grow in the streets of every city in the country."[22]

Bryan's juxtaposing "our farms" and "your cities" did not go over well in cities; they voted 59% for McKinley. Among all the nation's industrial cities, Bryan carried only two (Troy, New York, and Fort Wayne, Indiana).[23] The main labor unions were reluctant to endorse Bryan because their members feared inflation.[24][25] Railroad workers especially worried that Bryan's silver programs would bankrupt the railroads, which were in a shaky financial condition in the depression and whose bonds were payable in gold. Factory workers saw no advantage in inflation to help miners and farmers, because their urban cost of living would shoot up and they would be hurt. The McKinley campaign gave special attention to skilled workers, especially in the Midwest and adjacent states.[26] Secret polls show that large majorities of railroad and factory workers voted for McKinley.[27]

Overall, McKinley won the election with 271 electoral votes to Bryan's 176, due in large part to his strong support in urban areas.[28]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Analysis | Why are urban and rural areas so politically divided?". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
  2. 1 2 Badger, Emily (21 May 2019). "How the Rural-Urban Divide Became America's Political Fault Line". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  3. 1 2 "The divide between us: Urban-rural political differences rooted in geography | The Source | Washington University in St. Louis". The Source. 18 February 2020. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rachman, Gideon (30 July 2018). "Urban-rural splits have become the great global divider". The Financial Times. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
  5. 1 2 "Biden's Win Shows Rural-Urban Divide Has Grown Since 2016". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 11 April 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  6. 1 2 "Brexit and public opinion: cities and towns- the geography of discontent". UK in a changing Europe. 1 February 2019. Archived from the original on 20 September 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  7. 1 2 "General election 2019: The towns and cities least likely to vote". BBC News. 25 November 2019. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 "Urban-rural chasm defines new political divide in the West". AP NEWS. 18 December 2018. Archived from the original on 4 February 2023. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  9. 1 2 "The Urban-Rural Divide in Political Attitudes in the Netherlands". www.europenowjournal.org. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  10. ↑ Wilkinson, George; Haslam Mckenzie, Fiona; Bolleter, Julian (2022). "Federalism and urban primacy: political dimensions that influence the city–country divide in Australia". International Journal of Urban Sciences. 26 (3): 438–462. doi:10.1080/12265934.2021.1997631. S2CID 243954460. Archived from the original on 25 January 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
  11. 1 2 3 "Analysis | The growing urban-rural divide in global politics". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 27 May 2022. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
  12. 1 2 Lucas, Jack; Taylor, Zack (12 October 2021). "Canada's worrisome urban-rural political divide has never been greater". The Conversation. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  13. ↑ https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-10-15/nsw-votes-no-indigenous-voice-referendum-demographics-result/102976968
  14. ↑ Wherry, Aaron. "Two new solitudes — rural and urban — now define the Canadian political landscape". CBC News.
  15. ↑ "Orange islands in a blue sea: Why Alberta's urban-rural political divide still exists". Calgary. 30 May 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  16. ↑ "Alberta political divide rooted in identity, not ideology, survey suggests | Globalnews.ca". Global News. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  17. ↑ "Opinion: Legault's win reveals a Quebec split in two". The Globe and Mail. 6 October 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  18. ↑ T.W. Ann, et al. "The key causes of urban-rural conflict in China." Habitat International 49 (2015): 65-73. online
  19. ↑ Charles W. Eagles, "Urban‐Rural Conflict in the 1920s: A Historiographical Assessment." The Historian 49.1 (1986): 26-48.
  20. ↑ Raymond Arsenault, The Wild Ass of the Ozarks: Jeff Davis and the Social Bases of Southern Politics (Temple University Press, 1984).
  21. ↑ Charles W. Eagles, Democracy delayed: Congressional reapportionment and urban-rural conflict in the 1920s (University of Georgia Press, 2010), ch. 1.
  22. ↑ Kleppner, Paul (1970). The cross of culture: a social analysis of midwestern politics, 1850-1900. Free Press. p. 304.
  23. ↑ William Diamond, American Historical Review (1941) 46#2 pp. 281–305 at pp. 285, 297 in JSTOR
  24. ↑ Sanders, Elizabeth (1999). Roots of Reform: Farmers, Workers, and the American State, 1877-1917. U. of Chicago Press. p. 434. ISBN 9780226734774.
  25. ↑ Hild, Matthew (2007). Greenbackers, Knights of Labor, and Populists: Farmer-Labor Insurgency in the Late-Nineteenth-Century South. U. of Georgia Press. pp. 191–92. ISBN 9780820328973.
  26. ↑ Harpine, William D. (2006). From the Front Porch to the Front Page: McKinley and Bryan in the 1896 Presidential Campaign. Texas A&M University Press. p. 117. ISBN 9781585445592.
  27. ↑ Jensen, Richard J. (1971). The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888–1896. U. of Chicago Press. pp. 55–56. ISBN 9780226398259.
  28. ↑ William Diamond, "Urban and rural voting in 1896." American Historical Review 46.2 (1941): 281-305.

Further reading

  • Ann, T. W., et al. "The key causes of urban-rural conflict in China." Habitat International 49 (2015): 65–73. online
  • Beesley, Kenneth B., ed. The rural-urban fringe in Canada: Conflict and controversy (Rural Development Institute, 2010) online.
  • Parthasarathy, D., and Eric C. Thompson. "Cleavage, connection and conflict in rural, urban and contemporary Asia' (Springer Netherlands, 2013) online.
  • Punjabi, Bharat, and Craig A. Johnson. "The politics of rural–urban water conflict in India: Untapping the power of institutional reform." World Development 120 (2019): 182–192. online
  • Scott, Alister, Alana Gilbert, and Ayele Gelan. The urban-rural divide: Myth or reality? (Aberdeen: Macaulay Institute, 2007); major study of Great Britain. online
  • Shan, Liping, T. W. Ann, and Yuzhe Wu. "Strategies for risk management in urban–rural conflict: Two case studies of land acquisition in urbanising China." Habitat international 59 (2017): 90–100. online

In United States

  • Arsenault, Raymond . The Wild Ass of the Ozarks: Jeff Davis and the Social Bases of Southern Politics (Temple University Press, 1984), argues that in United States 1880s-1940s Southern demagogues appealed to a poor agrarian base against the rich business-oriented small towns.
  • Diamond, William. "Urban and rural voting in 1896." American Historical Review 46.2 (1941): 281–305.
  • Goldfield, David R. "Urban-Rural Relations in the Old South: The Example of Virginia." Journal of Urban History 2.2 (1976): 146–168; relations were friendly befopre the Civil War. online
  • Eagles, Charles W. "Congressional voting in the 1920s: A test of urban-rural conflict." Journal of American History 76.2 (1989): 528–534. online
  • Eagles, Charles W. "Urban‐Rural Conflict in the 1920s: A Historiographical Assessment." The Historian 49.1 (1986): 26–48.
  • Eagles, Charles W. Democracy delayed: Congressional reapportionment and urban-rural conflict in the 1920s (University of Georgia Press, 2010).
  • Friedman, Robert S. "The urban-rural conflict revisited." Western Political Quarterly 14.2 (1961): 481–495.
  • Rodden, Jonathan A. (2019). Why Cities Lose: The Deep Roots of the Urban-Rural Political Divide. Basic Books. ISBN 978-1-5416-4425-0.
  • Salka, William M. "Urban-rural conflict over environmental policy in the western United States." American Review of Public Administration 31.1 (2001): 33–48.
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