Literary parallels

Some scholars have compared the motif to marriage rites and customs attested in ancient literature. For example Günter Dammann, in Enzyklopädie des Märchens, compared the motif to the Indian ritual of svayamvara, and reported evidence of a similar practice in Ancient Iran.^[21]

French folklorist Emmanuel Cosquin noted that the suitor selection test was component of a larger narrative: the princess or bride-to-be chooses the hero, in lowly disguise, by throwing him an apple. According to him, this motif would be comparable to the ancient Indian ritual of svayamvara, wherein the bride, in a public gathering, would choose a husband by giving him a garland of flowers.^[22] In addition, Swedish scholar Waldemar Liungman (1948), who argued for its remote antiquity, saw in the golden apple motif a mark of the princess's self-choice of husband, and traced a parallel between it and a narrative cited by Aristotle regarding the founding of Massalia (modern day Marseille).^[23]

Similarly, in an ancient treatise written by historian Mirkhond, translated by linguist David Shea, it is reported that prince Gushtasp went to the land of "Room" during a suitor selection test held by princess Kitabun: as it was custom, a maiden of marriageable age was to walk through an assemblage of noble men with an orange and throw it to her husband-to-be. Gushtasp attends the event and the princess throws her orange to him, indicating her choice.^[24][25][26]

In regards to a similar tale from the Dungan people, according to Sinologist Boris L. Riftin, the motif of a princess (or woman of high social standing) throwing a silken ball atop a high tower to choose her husband is reported in the ancient Chinese story of "Lu Meng-Zheng": the princess throws a silken ball to a passing youth named Meng-Zheng (a poor student), and the king expels his daughter to live with her husband in a cave.^[27] In addition, some scholars (e.g., Ting Nai-tung, Wolfram Eberhard, Phra Indra Montri (Francis Giles)) remarked that a similar wedding folk custom (a maiden throwing a ball from a balcony to her husband of choice)^[28][29][30] was practiced among some Chinese minorities^[31] and in South China.^[32][33][34] The motif is also reported in ancient Chinese literature.^[35][36]

Tajikistan

Tajik folklorist Klavdia Ulug-Zade translated a Tajik tale to Russian as "Музаффар и его конь" (German: Muffar und sein Roß;^[70] English: "Muzaffar and his Horse"). In this tale, a padishah has no son, until his wife gives birth to one and dies. In his grief, he lets his son, named Muzaffar, be raised in an underground house, under the tutelage of nurses and mentors, until he is fifteen years old. One day, Muzaffar's mentor allows him to leave the underground house into the outside world, and is appointed his father's heir. Some time later, he goes to the market and buys a lame looking horse. Meanwhile, the padishah has remarried, and his new wife hates her step-son so much she plans to kill him: she digs up a hole, places diamond spikes in it for him to fall into, and covers it with a carpet. The horse warns Muzaffar against his step-mother's attempt. Later, the woman overhears a conversation between the boy and the animal and hatches a plan: she feigns illness and asks for the horse's meat as cure. The horse is aware of the evil plot and plans with the boy: the horse will whinny three times to call the boy's attention, then he is to ask his father for a last ride around the city on the animal. The plan goes without a hitch, and both flee from the city. Reaching a distant mountain, the horse gives Muzaffar some of is hairs and they part ways. The boy finds work as a shepherd, then sails to another kingdom, named Korf, where he works as the padishah's gardener. This second padishah has three daughters: Gulsun, Fatima Dunyo and Malika Dunyo. One day, Muzaffar arranges a beaufitul bouquet for the youngest princess, who begins to reciprocate his feelings. Some time later, the three princesses bring melons to their father as analogy for the marriageability, and the padishah organizes a suitor selection test: the princesses are to wait by a balcony and throw apples to their husbands of choice. The elder, Gulsun, throws hers to the son of the wazir; Fatima Dunyo, the middle one, casts her to the son of a magistrate, and Malika Dunyo to the lowly gardener. The padishah congratulates his elder daughters and gifts them houses and herds, and gives a meagre oil mill to the youngest. Some time later, Muzaffar joins his sons-in-law for a hunt: he doffs his menial disguise, summons his loyal horse and climbs up a mountain, where he meets an old man, who goads him into hunting fallow deer. Muzaffar kills some game, and discovers their meat is bitter, but the entrails are quite tasty. Suddenly, his brothers-in-law appear near the foot of the mountain, and he signals them to go up and meet him. The brothers-in-law do not recognize Muzaffar, but are given the bitter deer meat and leave the mountain to return to the padishah to prepare his food. Muzaffar also returns and prepares a soup with the entrails, which the padishah eats with gusto. Later, the padishah of the nearby city of Toroj threatens to invade Korf as revenge for being rebuffed by Malika Dunyo, and the princesses' husbands join in the fight for the kingdom. Muzaffar rides the horse in his golden garments and defeats the enemy army, but is hurt in the right hand. His father-in-law bandages Muzaffar's hand, and he flees the battlefield back to his wife. At the end of the tale, to celebrate his victory, the padishah of Korf holds a grand banquet and invites the entire realm. Muzaffar and his wife go to the feast in fine garments, and the padishah recognizes his handkerchief on him.^[71]

Uzbekistan

Isidor Levin and Ilse Laude-Cirtautas translated and published an Uzbek tale titled Erka-Dschản (Uzbek: Erkažon). In this tale, Erka-Dschản is the son of a padishah, and is given a foal. When he is fifteen years old, his mother dies and his father remarries. The boy's stepmother has two sons of a previous marriage and despises Erka-Dschản, to the point of tormenting the boy and even trying to poison his bread, but the boy's foal warns him. The stepmother sees an interaction between the boy and the animal and bides her time. After the padishah dies, the foal tells Erka-Dschản about his stepmother's plan: she will ask for its meat to cure her false ailment; the horse will neigh three times to alert him, and the boy is to ask for one last ride on the animal. The next day, it happens as the foal described: Erka-Dschản stops the execution in time and begs for one last ride on his foal, then seizes the opportunity to flee from his kingdom. At a distance, the foal gives Erka-Dschản some of its hairs to help him, and leaves, while the boy goes to look for work in a nearby kingdom. He claims to be a poor, lonely youth and the royal gardener takes him in as his assistant. Some time later, the royal gardener prepares flowers for the three princesses, and Erka-Dschản places some beautiful bouquets for them. Later, the girls take melons from the orchard and take it to their father, as analogy of their marriageability. Thus, the padishah of this kingdom orders a suitor selection test: every men are to stay beneath the royal pavillion, from where the princesses will throw apples to their husbands of choice. The two elder princesses throw theirs to noble men, and the youngest to Erka-Dschản, who just happened to be passing by. The padishah celebrates grand weddings for his two elder daughters, and talks to the third one about moving away from the palace with her husband. Time passes; the padishah wants to put his three sons-in-law to the test, and orders them to hunt for swans. Later, war breaks out, and Erka-Dschản joins in the fight with his brothers-in-law, riding a lame mule at first, but, when he is out of sight, he summons his loyal horse again and fights for his father-in-law's kingdom.^[72]

Dungan people

In a tale from the Dungan people titled "Чжон Тянью" ("Zhong Tianyu"), a yuanwei named Zhong has a golden-haired boy named Zhong Tianyu. After his mother dies, Zhong marries another woman. Zhong Tianyu has a special black foal with white hooves and a full moon on its forehead. One day, the boy finds his stepmother in bed with a lama, and tells his father, who does not believe him. Fearing her step-son will reveal the affair, she tries to kill him, first by giving him a coat that will burn him if he puts it on, and later by preparing chicken that will also burn him if he eats it. With the horse's warnings, the boy avoids both dangers. Failing twice, the stepmother realizes the foal helped him and, advised by her lover, the lama, feigns illness and asks for the horse's heart as cure. Anticipating the woman's ploy, the foal plans with the boy: it will whinny three times to alert him when he is still at school; he is to return at once and ask for a last ride on the foal. The next day, it happens as the horse predicted: Zhong Tianyu circles the estate three times, then flies into the air and escapes from the kingdom. At a distance, the horse advises the boy to shirk its royal garments and weapons, pretend he is a lowly servant and find work; it also gives the boy some of its hairs, and vanishes. Zhong Tianyu finds an old couple's house and asks for shelter. The couple take him in; the old man notices the boy's golden hair and warns him to hide it beneath a cap of sheepskin. One day, the boy goes to bathe in a nearby pond, where the local three princesses are taking a stroll; the youngest notices the golden-haired youth. Later, Zhong Tianyu works as the gardener's assistant, and cuts three watermelons for the gardener to bring to the emperor. The emperor then orders the old man to explain their meaning the next day. Zhong Tianyu goes in his adoptive father's behalf and tells the emperor the fruits represent his daughters' marriageability: the elder overripe, the middle one ripe, and the youngest just right. So, the emperor prepares a suitor selection test: every available man in the kingdom shall pass by the palace, and the princesses are to throw a sewn ball to their husbands of choice. The elder princess throws hers to an army commander, the middle one to a high official, and the youngest to the gardener's assistant. The emperor marries his two daughters and present them with lavish gifts, while the youngest moves out of the palace to a hut near the stables. Some time later, the emperor sends his two sons-in-law to hunt him some game; Zhong Tianyu secretly joins the hunt, summons his loyal horse and rides to a place where he can find the most game. His two brothers-in-law appear soon after and, seeing the youth with the best game, ask for some; Zhong Tianyu agrees to share, so long as they agree to be branded on their backs. One month later, war breaks out against a human king, and the emperor's sons-in-law ride into battle. Zhong Tianyu summons the horse and defeats the enemy army, but lets his brothers-in-law take the credit, if they let him cut off a slice of their horses backs. During a second fight, his hand is injured, and the third princess bandages it. Next, in a confrontation against a multiheaded creature, he kills it, and goes to the emperor's palace on the black foal to reveal his ruse. His brothers-in-law come after him and boast about their victory, but Zhong Tianyu shows the emperor the branded backs and their horses' cut off flesh. The emperor orders their execution and nominates Zhong Tianyu as his heir. At the end of the tale, he returns home to avenge his father and kill his stepmother and the lama. He brings his father to his wife's kingdom and cures him with a magical herb and a magical water.^[73]

France

In a German language tale collected by folklorist Angelika Merkelbach-Pinck with the title Der edel-weise Ritter ("The Noble-Wise Knight"), the titular noble-wise knight loses his father, a count, during a war, and has to find work as squire to another lord, taking his Schimmel ("gray-white") horse with him. Some time into his work, his master, a Jew, conspires with his wife to get rid of the squire: they give him a coat laced with poison. The horse advises the squire to commission a similar coat from a tailor to avoid the danger. Failing that, the Jew plans to kill him directly with a dagger. Before the fateful hour, the horse advises the squire to ask for a last favour: to be able to ride the Schimmel horse one last time. The next day, the squire is told he is to be killed, but repeats the horse's words to his master. The master grants his wish and the squire seizes the opportunity to ride away from the castle and into the castle of the Jew's enemy. The horse advises the squire to wear a cap on his head and find work as a gardener under the identity of a Grindkopf, while the animal stays near a hollow oak outside the castle. The squire becomes the king's gardener and, one day, takes off his cap to wash himself and exposes his golden hair - an event witnessed by the king's daughter. The princess then begins to take an interest in the gardener, to her parents' annoyance. Some time later, war breaks out, and the gardener rides a lame fox to battle, but, out of sight, trades the fox for his Schimmel horse and defeats the enemy army, then goes back to the gardener's hut. This happens twice more. On the third battle, however, the Jew stabs the noble-wise knight in the leg with a bayonetta. The knight takes out the bayonetta shrapnel and bandages his wound, then defeats the enemy army for the third time, and rides back to his hut. the king organizes a feast and invites the Jew as a peace offering. The gardener goes to the feast as the noble-wise knight and shows his leg wound as proof of his deed. Then, one of the guests suggests they tell their life stories, and the noble-wise knight narrates how the Jew tried to kill him. Upon hearing the tale, the Jew flees from the feast, and the noble-wise knight marries the princess.^[74]

Germany

In a German tale from Silesia with the title Der treue Hansel ("The faithful Hansel"), a farmer has an apple tree in his garden. In spring, the tree yields an apple. The farmer brings it home to share it with his wife, but he hears a commotion in the stables and goes to check on it: the horses are loose. He locks them again and goes back home, only to discover that his half of the apple was eaten by a mare, while the other by his wife. Some time later, a boy is born to them, named Johann, and a foal to the mare. Johann takes care of the foal after he comes back from school, to the chagrin of a witch neighbour. The witch tricks Johann's mother to kill the boy: first, by giving him cake laced with poison; next, by giving him cake with an even larger dose of poison. The horse, however, advises the boy to avoid eating it. Failing that, the witch convinces the farmer to kill the horse. The next day, Johann asks his father to ride one last time on the horse around his house. The boy rides around the patio three times, then gallops away to the forest. In the forest, Johann washes his hair in a pond and it becomes golden, then buys a pig's bladder to wear as a cap. He finds work as a gardener's assistant in a prince (Fürst)'s castle, but in a probationary status: Johann has to dig up holes and plant new trees to get the position. Johann's horse, Hansel, tells him to sleep while he takes care of everything. Somehow, the horse fulfills Johann's tasks, to the gardener's appreciation. Later, Johann prepares a nice bouquet of flowers to the prince's youngest daughter, and finishes it with a strand of his golden hair as a bow. The princess appreciates the gift and, one night, sees Johann's golden hair and notices a similar strand on the bouquet. Later, the princesses are eligible to be married, and the Fürst sets a suitor selection test for them: for each day, each princess are to throw a golden ring to an assemblage of knights, and whoever catches hers shall marry her. During the selection, Johann rides his horse Hansel and catches the rings. Some time later, the youngest princess decides to marry Johann, the gardener, much to her father's consternation, and is expelled from the palace to live in a shabby inn, but she cannot be happier. Johann renovates the inn with the golden coins he earned from his job, and lives with the princess. Later, war breaks out, and the Fürst's sons-in-law ride into battle to defend the realm. Johann is given a lame mule and a rusty sword, but, out of sight, summons Hansel and goes to defend his father-in-law. Johann fights in three campaigns and is injured in the foot in the third, which the Fürst dresses with a scarf. Johann rides back to the inn and rests from the battle. The Fürst organizes a banquet for the kingdom and invites everyone, but Johann does not go due to his injury. The Fürst comes to the inn and notices his scarf on the gardener's foot, proving he was the knight at the battlefield. The Fürst then names Johann his successor. Later, his horse Hansel asks Johann to cut off its head. Despite his pleas not to ask such a thing, Johann does as the horse asked: the horse then turns into a human, the spitting image of Johann, and lives in happiness with his brother and his sister-in-law.^[75]

Germanist Johann Wilhelm Wolf collected a German language tale with the title Das treue Füllchen (translated as The Faithful Foal).^[76] In the first part of the tale, a shepherd named Hans finds three horses, one of a grey colour, the second of a black colour, and the third of a bay colour, which he uses to climb up a glass mountain three times and gain a princess for wife. He marries the princess and, one year later, she gives birth to a son, but Hans, now a prince, is summoned to fight a war in another country. Meanwhile, a white horse foals a colt in the stables, which becomes the prince's friend and they grow up together. However, while Hans is away, the princess has an affair with a Jew from their court, for six years. At the end of this period, the princess gets news that Hans is coming back home, and her lover and she fear that the young boy will divulge their affair, so they plot to kill him: first, they try to give him coffee laced with poison; next, they give him a smock that will kill him. With the colt's warnings, the boy avoids both dangers: he gives the cat the coffee and puts the smock on the dog; both animals die. Hans finally returns home and his wife, the princess, feigns illness and asks for their son's tongue bathed in milk as her cure. Hans ponders on this dilemma, but, upon seeing his son's animal companion, decides to kill the horse and take its tongue to spare the boy. The horse warns Hans's son that the boy's father will kill him, but they can avoid this fate: the boy is to ask his father to ride the colt around the castle three times, and they will seize the opportunity to flee. It happens thus: the boy rides the horse to another kingdom, where the boy finds work as a horse groomer and is given a magic chain to summon his equine friend. The boy excels at horse grooming, but, one day, he sees the royal gardener arranging bouquets for the princess, and wants to have a go at it. The boy's floral arrangement impresses the gardener, who wishes to take him as his apprentice. The boy works in the garden and, on Saturdays, when he finishes his chores, he summons his loyal colt and rides around the garden - events witnessed by the princess, who falls deeply in love with him. Some time later, the princess tells the king she wants to marry the gardener's assistant, but the king gives her three days to think over her decision, otherwise he will place her in the Hinkelhaus as soon as she is married. The princess is dead set on her decision and moves out with her husband to the Hinkelhaus, and suffers mockery from the court, but her husband comforts her. Soon after, war breaks out, and the garderner's assistant is given a lame mount and a wooden sword, but, as soon as he is out of sight, he summons his horse and ides into battle. He guides the soldiers to victory, but is injured in his leg. His father-in-law, the king, sees the injury and bandages it with his royal handkerchief. The knight rides back to the lame mount and dismisses his horse. Back to the Hinkelhaus, the princess notices her husband's wound and her father's handkerchief. She then takes it and goes to talk to her father, the king, who is searching the whole kingdom for the mysterious knight at the battlefield. The gardener's assistant wake up, summons his horse again, and rides to court to take his wife and gallop away to another land.^[77]

Greece

Austrian consul Johann Georg von Hahn collected a Greek tale from Epirus with the title Vom Prinzen und seinem Fohlen, which author and folklorist Lucy Garnett translated as The Prince and the Foal.^[78] In this tale, a king has no son, so a Jew comes and gives him an apple for the queen. The queen eats the apple, becomes pregnant and gives birth to a boy. A mare also eats it and foals. The foal and the prince become great friends and ride together. While the king is away at war, the Jew seduces the queen and convinces her to poison her son, so he cannot stand in their way. One day, after the boy comes home from school, he sees his foal crying in the stables. The foal reveals the queen, his mother, poisoned his food, so he should not eat it. After the first attempt is foiled, the queen tries to kill him by poisoning his wine and placing poisoned needles on his bed, but the horse warns the prince on both occasions. After the king returns, the queen - once again, convinced by the Jew - feigns illness and the Jew tells the king that, by using the boy's liver, the queen can be cured. The horse learns of this and tells the prince. The boy, then, asks his father to give him three suits, one with the stars and its skies, the second with the springtime and its flowers, and the third with the sea and its waves, and allow him to ride around the palace three times with the suits, before he is killed. The king indulges his son one last time and gives him the suits, but the prince, cunningly, rides around the palace three times and rides away on the horse to another regions. At a safe distance, he wears a smock and a raggedy cap over his suit, takes some hairs from the horse and tells the animal to come whenever he burns them, and dismisses it. The prince finds work in a city as a king's gardener. One day, while everyone is asleep, the prince rides the horse around the garden in secret, but he is spied on by the king's youngest daughter. Some time later, the king tells his three daughters to take a melon in the garden; the princess do and explain the melons as analogy for their marriageability (one overripe, another a bit overripe, the last ripe enough), so the king summons all available men in the kingdom for a suitor selection test: the princesses are to throw golden apples at their desired husbands. The youngest princess throws hers to the gardener. Despite the king's protests, the third princess marries the gardener and is expelled from the palace to live with the poor youth. Time passes, and the king falls ill. The royal doctors order the water of life ("deathless water", in Garnett's translation) as his only remedy. The king's two sons-in-law ride away in gallant horses, while the gardener rides in a lame mule. At a hiding spot, the gardener summons his faithful horse and gallops to the fountain of water of life to fetch some in a flask. He waits for hie brothers-in-law and says he can give some of the water to them, provided they allow his horse to strike their bodies. The brothers-in-law consent and returns to the king. The gardener returns home and gives his wife the flask to take to her father. The king is healed and embraces the gardener as his son-in-law, but the youth orders the king to pave a golden path between the castle and the gardener's hut. The king obeys, and the gardener doffs the raggedy clothes, and rides to the castle in the suit of armor with the sea with its waves. The prince then orders his brothers-in-law to show the horseshoe prints on their bodies.^[79][80] Author and folklorist Frances Carpenter adapted the tale as The Prince's Foal and sourced it from Turkey. In her version, there is no Jew, the queen has her own son (who is the prince's half-brother); the king simply banishes the prince, and the prince wears one robe, instead of three.^[81]

Von Hahn summarized a variant from Ziza, near Joaninna, wherein the Jew lover, as doctor, prescribes the foal's entrails as remedy for the queen; the prince simply asks for one robe, instead of three, and the princess discovers him when he takes a bath in the garden and she glimpses the princely robes under his shabby disguise.^[82]

Cyprus

In a Greek-language tale collected from Arminou, Cyprus, with the title Ο λοιτζιαρέτης, a royal couple have no children, nor does their mare birth any foals. One day, the king complains about it to a magician, who gives him three apples to be given to the queen and their peels to the mare. The king follows the magician's instructions and, nine months later, a prince is born to the queen, whom they name Theocharis, and a foal to the mare, which they name Faris. Years later, while the king is away, the queen arranges a "friend", who conspires with her to kill the prince. One day, before Theocharis goes to school he goes to greet the foal, which warns him the boy's mother has poisoned his food and that he must not eat it. Next, Faris warns about not drinking anything his mother gives him. The third day, Faris tells Theocharis that, on the queen's friend's suggestion, the foal is to be sacrificed. When the king returns, the prince asks his father to prepare him a golden saddle and a golden armour, and to allow him to ride Faris one last time. The king agrees to indulge his son, but the boy seizes the opportunity to escape to another kingdom. At a safe distance, Faris gives three hairs of its mane to the prince, then gallops away. Theocharis finds work as a gardener's assistant to a local king, and summons Faris to destroy the garden overnight. Theocharis and Faris keep their secret night rides, which are spied on by the king's youngest daughter, who falls in love with him. Some time later, the king assembles noblemen for the princess to choose her husband by throwing an apple to the one that passes by her window. Three times the assemblage passes, but the princess withholds the apple. They bring in the lowly gardener boy, to whom the princess gives her apple, signifying her choice. Insulted, the king marres them to each other, and moves his daughter to a chicken coop. Later, war breaks out, and Theocharis joins in the fray: he summons Faris, dons his golden armour and defeats his enemies with a sword. He is injured and loses a golden ring, but the king dresses his wound with a scarf. Theocharis departs and returns to his wife in their chicken coop. The king wants to know the identity of the knight, and the princess leads her father to Theocharis, whom he recognizes as the knight. Theocharis and the princess are married again in a grand ceremony.^[83]

Italy

In a Sicilian variant collected in Buccheri by folklorist Giuseppe Pitre with the title Filippeddu, a widowed king marries a new wife. The new queen gives birth to a son, and she plots to have her step-son killed to make way for her own child. Meanwhile, the prince buys a little horse in the fair and brings it to the stables. Back to the queen, she conspires with her doctor to feign illness and declare that the only cure is the prince's blood. One day, when the prince is back from school, he goes to the stables to see his horse friend, and finds the animal crying. The horse answers that the prince will die, but plans an escape: saddle the horse and ask his father to have a go around the garden for two hours, strap a vessel under the horse's belly to collect its sweat and take some hairs from its tail. The prince follows the instructions and flees with the horse to another place. The horse falls down and dies, but, just as the horse instructed him, the prince dips a hair from its tail in the vessel and the horse revives, and brings with him his palace, pages and accommodations. The prince then goes to another city and finds work as the king's gardener's apprentice. The prince, named Filippeddu, makes floral arrangements and brings them to the three princesses. One night, the prince summons his horse and palace in front of the youngest princess's quarters; she wakes up, sees the commotion and, to confirm her suspicions, spies on him the next day. Some time later, she declares to her father she wants to marry Filippeddu. Despite the king's protests, the princess is allowed to marry him, but is expelled from the palace to live in the stables. The princess is also mocked for her choice of husband, while her sisters marry princes. Time passes, and the kingdom enters a war. The king declares that whoever brings a banner shall be granted a royal title. Filippeddu rides a lame mule, then uses the horse's hair to ride a better mount, rides into battle and steals the banner. On the way back, he makes an offer to his first brother-in-law: the banner for his cut off little finger. The next day, the same thing happens: Filippeddu rides into battle, steals the banner of war and gives to his other brother-in-law in exchange for his little finger. Later, the king summons everyone for a banquet at the palace, where his elder daughters boast about their husbands. Filippeddu uses the horse's hair, and produces the cut off fingers as evidence of the brothers-in-law's deception.^[84][85]

South Slavic

In a South Slavic tale published by Slavicist Friedrich Salomon Krauss with the title Das wunderbare Pferd ("The Wonderful Horse"), a countess is pregnant with child, and a mare in the stables is ready to foal. The countess gives birth to a boy, then dies, as well as the mare after it foals. The human boy grows up and becomes friends with the foal in the stables, which knows many things. As for the count, he marries another woman. One day, the woman feigns illness and asks for the horse's liver. The horse warns the boy of the step-mother's plot, and plans with him: the boy is to ask for a coat shining like the sun, then he is to ride the horse three times around the estate. The boy is given the sun-coat, and, after he mounts the foal, both ride away from the count's manor. In another town, the foal gives the boy its bridle and advises him to find work, then gallop away. The boy becomes a gardener at the king's court, and, one time, summons the horse to ride around the garden in his sun-coat - a scene that is witnessed by the princess. The princess falls in love with the gardener and withers with love for him. The royal doctors advise the king to marry her to the gardener. Much to his disgust, the king follows the doctors' prescribed treatment, and banishes her to live with the boy in a chicken coop. Later, war breaks out, and the gardener is given a lame mule. Before he reaches the battlefield, he gives the mule to a innkeeper for safekeeping, while he summons the horse, puts on the sun-coat and rides into battle to fight for the kingdom. An arrow injures the boy's hand, which the king bandages with a handkerchief.^[86] The tale was republished by poet and linguist Matija Valjavec with the title Čudni konj ("Wonderful Horse"), and sourced from Petrijanec, Croatia.^[87]

Poland

In a Polish tale collected by Polish folklorist Aleksander Saloni with the title O synie króleskiem (Russian: "О королевском сыне"; English: "About the Royal Son"), while a king is away at war, a magician named Milojardyn turns the true queen into a mare and replaces her for his daughter. When the king comes back, the false queen conspires with the king to kill the prince. The boy comes back from school and goes to the stables to feed the mare, which tramples him and warns him against eating soup or sweets his "mother" may give him. The next time, they try to poison him with sweets again, and the third time with a special coat rigged to kill whoever wears it. Finally, the false queen scratches herself and blames the prince, which convinces the king to execute his son. The mare advises the boy to ask for a last ride on the horse before his execution, then he must gallop away from the kingdom. It happens thus, and the prince and mare ride away to another realm. The mare gives the prince a girdle to summon her and orders him to find work as a gardener, then flees. The prince hides his golden hair and astral mark on his chest, then hires himself to the king's gardener as an apprentice. One day, he prepares a bouquet of flowers and gives it to the youngest princess, who reciprocates by giving him her ring. Later, the second king arranges marriages for his three daughters, but the youngest princess only wants to marry the gardener. The prince summons the mare, wears an ugly disguise and goes to the king's court, where he is given the princess. Some time later, some princes, spurned by the princess, ally themselves and prepare to battle the kingdom. The third princess complains to her gardener husband, who agrees to fight for his father-in-law against the enemy princes. After two battles, the prince and the mare defeat the enemy princes and save the king, but he is hurt in a leg. The king bandages the mysterious knight with a handkerchief, but he departs back to the princess. Safely at home, the king sends for his third daughter and her husband, but, since they deny his orders, he goes to the gardener's quarters himself and, upon seeing the same bandage on the gardener's apprentice, realizes his son-in-law was the one that saved him. The gardener goes to the court and summons the mare with the bridle, which turns back into his mother, the true queen.^[88][89][90]

In a Polish tale collected by Oskar Kolberg from Tomaszowice with the title O dwóch jabłkach (German: Die zwei Äpfel; English: "About Two Apples"), a childless couple prays to God to have a child. One night, the husband has a dream about an apple tree behind the stables. The next morning, the man finds the tree from his dream and plucks two apples, then goes to feed the horses, but a fruit falls to the ground and lands near a mare that eats it. The man returns with the other apple and gives it to his wife. A son is born to the couple and a colt to the mare. Seven years later, the boy goes to school, and whenever he goes back home he meets the apple-born colt instead of his mother, which greatly infuriates the latter, so much so she tries to kill her own son: first, she gives him poisoned food. The boy goes to check on the colt and finds him crying. The animal explains his own mother is trying to poison him, and he must toss the food away in a dung heap. The boy follows the animal's orders and buries the food; three days later, snakes and lizards appear in the dung heap. The boy then tells his father about his mother's attempt, and he allows the boy to leave and take the colt with him to the wide world. The boy rides the horse until he reaches a rock, which opens up for them to rest inside. The colt then tells the boy to wash his hair in the fountain; it turns to a golden colour. The colt advises the boy to hide his hair under a cap and go to the nearby castle to find a job as their gardener. The boy makes great bouquets for the king's three daughters, the youngest princess getting the most beautiful, to her sisters' envy. One day, the king sends the gardener to meet the queen, and he exposes his golden hair, which the youngest princess sees. Later, the king organizes a ball and summons princes for his daughters to choose. During the ball, the princesses choose their husbands, the youngest choosing the gardener.^[91][92]

Czech Republic

In a Moravian tale collected by Beneš Method Kulda and Jan Soukop with the title Zahradníček Strupáček ("The Scabby Gardener"), a peasant has a childless wife, a mare with no foal, and a tree on his garden that does not yield fruit. He complains to the tree that if it does not bear fruit, he will burn it. When he turns again, there are two apples on the tree. He takes the apples and gives one to his wife, while the other drops on the ground and rolls to the stables, where his mare eats it. A son is born to the man, while a foal is born to the mare. The boy, named Janeček, becomes friends with the foal and they talk to each other. Years later, while the man is away on business, Janeček's mother has an affair with a Jew, and together they plan to kill the boy: first, they try to poison his food; next, they give him a garment laced with poison. With the foal's warnings, Janeček avoid the danger. Finally, his father goes back home, and his wife spins a story that their son is only interested in playing with the horse instead of going to school, and issues an ultimatum: either the horse is sold, or she will leave him. Janeček visits his friend in the stables, and sees that he has not touched his food. The horse answers that the boy's father is readying a rifle to shoot him, but Janeček can save the horse: he is to ask for a last ride around the yard. Janeček follows the horse's instructions and gallops away from home into the forest, where they stop by a fountain. The horse asks Janeček to wash his mane with water from the fountain; and it becomes gold. Janeček also washes his hair in the fountain and his also turns to a golden colour. The horse advises Janeček to find work as a gardener to the king, while he will stay by a nearby cave. Janeček arrives at the castle and is hired as their gardener, but he is mocked as having scab due to the cap he wears on his head. One day, while he is at the garden, he takes off his cap to comb his hair, and the king's youngest daughter sees him and falls in love with the boy. Later, the king's elder daughters find suitable grooms for themselves, while the youngest expresses her wishes to marry the gardener. The king berates his daughter and threatens to banish him, to which the princess retorts she wil simply join him. Back to Janeček, on a Sunday, he dons princely clothes to go to church, where the king is, then returns to the cave where he left his horse and goes back to working in castle gardens. The king consents to his daughter's marriage to the gardener, and they move out to a small cottage. Later, war breaks out, and Janeček rides into battle with his knightly garments to defend his father-in-law's kingdom. After the battle, Janeček prepares to leave the battlefield, but the king tries to keep him there and accidentally stabs him in the leg. The king then returns to the castle for a grand feast, and goes to visit his daughter in their small cottage. Once there, he sees an ornately decorated house with gold and jewels, and his son-in-law, the gardener, with a leg injury. The king realizes the gardener was the knight and that he made a mistake. At the end of the tale, Janeček becomes king. The horse then asks him to cut off its head. Reluctantly, Janeček obeys his orders: the horse becomes a dove and flies to the sky.^[93]

In a Czech tale published by author Anna Popelková with the title O Honzičkovi a čarodějném koníčku ("About Honzichkovi and the magic little horse"), a merchant has a son named Honzichk. One day, he discovers his wife is a sorceress and curses her to be a foal. Years later, when the boy is fourteen years old, the merchant remarries. Whatever Honzichk wants something, the foal neighs for the boy to come to it. The boy's stepmother forces him to work in the garden, and begins to dislike her stepson. One day, the foal warns the boy his stepmother wishes to kill him, and poisoned the breakfast, so he should drop it on the table. Honzichk follows the foal's advice. Next, the foal tells the boy they cannot stay there anymore, and asks the boy to convince his father to prepare the foal for a ride in the garden, and they will take the chance to escape. Honzichk asks his father to saddle the horse for a small ride in the garden, and the foal flies away with him to a distant place near a pear tree. After they land, the foal order the boy to take a scarf, an ointment and a comb, which he is to use on his hair to make it grow; then lift a stone, take an iron rod and strike it with the rod for golden water to gush forth, which he is to use to wash his hair and the foal's mane; then shows the boy a ring, with which he can use to summon the horse. the animal also suggests him to put on some shabby clothes and refuse to take them off, despite what others may say. Lastly, the foal advises Honzichk to go to a nearby kingdom and find work there as the old gardener's assistant, and leaves. Honzichk follows the foal's advice and is employed to work in the garden. Some time, he summons the horse to trample the flowers, but so that more beautiful flowers may spring in their place. Still in his gardener job, he takes one night off to comb his golden hair, which is seen by the youngest princess Krasomila. Some time later, he fashions bouquets for the three princesses Dobroslava, Bohunca and Krasomila, and ties a strand of his golden hair in each one. Some time later, the king notices his three daughters are old enough to be married, and gives each one a red apple to throw to their husband of choice. A parade of noble men and gentlemen pass by the castle windows, and the elder two throws their apples, respectively, to a baron and a knight. Honzichk, seeing the assemblage, wants to know what is going on and the youngest princess throws her red apple to his head, marking her choice of suitor. The king marries the elder two in grand ceremonies, but Krasomila marries the lowly gardener and moves out to a cellar. Eventually, war breaks out, and the king orders his three sons-in-law to fight for their kingdom. Honzichk is given a lame horse, but summons the foal, puts on a golden armour, defeats his enemies, then flies back to his lame disguise. This happens twice more. On the third time, however, the king, wanting to discover the identity of the golden knight, accidentally injures his leg and bandages it with a handkerchief. Honzichk rides off, puts on the lame disguise and goes to meet his wife. Princess Krasomila notices the wound on her husband, and sees the handkerchief with the royal insignia on it. She then goes to talk to her father about it, and the king goes to meet the gardener. Honzichk takes off the headscarf to reveal his golden hair, and is recognized as the knight in golden armour, to the king's contentment. Honzichk is given honours and a grand marriage ceremony to Krasomila. He then summons his loyal foal, which requests him to be taken to the garden for its head to be cut off. With tears, Honzichk attends the foal's request and cuts off its head; a white dove flies off the horse's body and wishes happiness on the boy.^[94]

Slovakia

Czech linguist Jiří Polívka reported the existence of a Slovak variant collected by Ján Francisci-Rimavský, unpublished at the time, but archived in a compilation called Codex diversorum auctorum A.^[95] According to a summary of the tale, titled Janko a kuoň vrstovníci ("Janko and the Vrstovňíci Horse"), Janko and the horse are born at the same time, and the boy is the only one that understands it. The boy's parents try to kill him: first, by giving him poisoned cookies, then his father tries to shove him into the water. When his parents try to kill their son a third time, both the boy and the horse escape to the forest, when they stop by a golden fountain that gilds his hair and the horse's mane. On the horse's advice, Janko wears a kerchief on his head and pretends he has a capillary disease, then takes refuge in a copper castle. One day, he learns that the princess from a nearby kingdom will throw a belt from a balcony and whoever fetches it shall have her as their wife. Janko rides in copper clothes and gets the belt. Next, he goes to a silver castle, and steals a ring from the princess's finger as an engagement challenge. Lastly, he goes to a golden castle, and rides to fetch a golden towel from the princess this time. Surprisingly, the princess shoots him in the leg to mark him, but he wraps the golden towel around his injury. Later, he goes incognito to a feast, where he is identified by the princess and marries her. The story then explains that by fetching the three objects, he lifted a curse on the copper, the silver and the golden castles.^[96]

Russia

In a tale collected from a teller in Kuznetsky District with the title "Золотой конь" ("Golden Horse"), a merchant has a son that helps him in his store. One day, the son sees a golden-maned black horse next to a peasant and asks his father to buy it. The merchant bargains with the peasant for the animal and buys it to give to his son. The boy tends to the horse, feeds and grooms it. One day, he goes to the stables and sees the horse crying. The animal warns him not to eat any food he is given and throw it to the dog. The boy goes home and his mother gives him a dish, but he follows the horse's advice and throws away the food to the dog; it eats and dies. Next, the horse advises the boy to refuse a new shirt his mother may give him, and to hang it over the stove. The boy does as instructed and reptiles crawl out of the garment. The third time, the horse tells him his mother wishes to kill the horse to cure her. The boy goes to his mother's room, and is told she is sick and needs the horse's heart to regain health. The next morning, the horse is brought to be sacrificed, but the boy asks to ride a last time on the animal. He seizes the opportunity to gallop away to another kingdom. At a distance, the horse tells him to dismount and walk to the nearby kingdom of the serpent king ("змеиный царь"), where his three daughters are to choose their husbands in a public gathering, and says the boy can summon him by whistling three times. The merchant's son enters the kingdom and takes part in the husband selection: the elder princesses choose husbands for themselves, and the youngest chooses the merchant's son, to the assemblage's mocking laughter and the king's disgust. The princess remains steadfast in her decision, and asks her father to provide at least a chicken coop for them to live. Some time later, a large six-headed snake rises out of the sea and menaces the kingdom. The eldest princess is given to appease the beast, but the merchant's son summons his loyal horse, dons a golden furcoat and a golden saber, and saves his sister-in-law. The same events happen to the middle princess: she is given to a seven-headed serpent, but the merchant's son kills the monster to save her. Lastly, the youngest princess is given to a 17-headed serpent; the merchant's son rides the horse to save his wife and decapitates 16 of its heads, leaving only one intact, per the horse's advice. The serpent bites his hand, and the princess dresses his wound. The merchant's son follows the monster to its marine lair and they hold a truce. The serpent gives the merchant son's two magic eggs. The boy returns to land and tosses one of the eggs on the chicken coop: a large terem appears for him to reside in. Later, he asks his wife to invite the king over to the terem for a banquet. The king at first declines the invitation twice, since he knows his daughter lives in miserable conditions, but accepts on the third time and goes to have a drink with his son-in-law.^[97]

In a Russian tale from Voronezh Oblast titled "Ванюшкин конь" ("Vanyushka's Horse"), Vanyushka loses his mother and father, and decides to find his "luck" in the world. He eventually finds some people pulling a colt to sacrifice it, but Vanyushka asks them for the colt. The boy and the colt live together, and eventually he hires himself as a servant to a king. This king had two children from a previous marriage and married a second wife, but his new queen hates her stepchildren and planned to kill them. The queen conspires with Baba Yaga to kill the royal children: first, the witch suggests she gives them cursed belts after they come out of the bath. Vanyushka considers the royal children, a boy and a girl, like his siblings. He meets his horse, which warns him of the ploy. Vanyushka then goes to the children and places the belts on some dogs that die. Next, the queen tries to give her stepchildren some poisoned jam, but Vanyushka tosses the pot to the ground. Eventually, Baba Yaga reveals the queen the servant's horse is warning them, and advises her to feign illness and ask for the horse's heart as remedy. The king takes the news and tells Vanyushka they will sacrifice his horse. Vanyushka refuses it at first, but lets them have the animal, as long as he is allowed one last ride on it. Vanyushla deceives the king and the queen, and rides away to another kingdom where he marries, and the tale ends.^[98]

Ukraine

In a Ukrainian tale collected by Ukrainian folklorist Mikhailo G. Ivasyuk from Chernivtsi with the title "Золотоволосий хлопець" ("Golden-Haired Youth"), a childless tsar suffers for nor having children. On a hunt, he comes across a hut with an old woman who lives alone, though her children have long left into the world. The old woman tells the tsar she knows of a sorcerer that can grant the monarch his wish. The tsar gives her some gold and goes back to the palace. The old woman buys herself the information from the sorcerer: there is an apple tree in the royal gardens with six apples, three in an upper row and three in a lower row, which the empress is to eat if she wants to have a child. After the sorcerer leaves, the old woman goes to pluck the apples and eats three of them herself, while the other three she throws to her mare. The next year, a golden-haired son is born to the old woman, and a golden-maned, golden-tailed horse to the mare. After a year, the emperor returns and finds the woman with a son, and inquires about the sorcerer's advice. The old woman lies that the sorcerer needs three years to prepare a potion for the empress, and says the golden-haired son is hers. The tsar asks the woman to let him adopt her son as his heir, and the woman agrees. Time passes, and the boy grows up in three years. One day, the tsar has to leave to fight in a war, and the golden-haired youth is left at the palace. Meanwhile, the empress begins an affair with a lover, and both conspire to destroy the adopted prince: first, they rig his bed so he turns to dust as soon as he lies on it. The youth meets with his foal in the stables and confides in him that the empress is having an affair, to which the foal advises him not to sleep on his bed that night. Their first plan fails, so they plot again. The second time, the foal advises the youth to take some firewood and throw it to the porch before he enters the palace. He follows his foal's orders and survives another attempt, for the firewood becomes ashes instantly. Failing twice, the empress's lover advises her to scratch herself, rip her clothes apart and tell the tsar the youth attacked her. The tsar returns, falls for the empress's trick and orders the execution of his adoptive son. The youth, as a last request, asks to be allowed a last goodbye to his foal. The soldiers try to bring the foal out of the stables, but the animal trots them down - first, ten; then a hundred, and finally a thousand soldiers fall down before him. The youth goes himself to the stables, mounts on the horse and goes to talk to the tsar on the gallows; he reveals the empress's affair then rides away to another kingdom. The foal says he needs but to whistle three times, and it will come to him, then vanishes. The youth makes a pipe in the forest, then goes to the city to play sad tunes on his instrument. The king's daughters, three princesses, each take notice of the youth's sad melodies and question about it. He pays no heed to the first two princesses, but falls in love with the third one and asks her for her a ring. The princess agrees and they marry, the youth playing merry tunes in his wedding.^[99]