TOP500
Key people
Established24 June 1993 (1993-06-24)
Websitetop500.org

The TOP500 project ranks and details the 500 most powerful non-distributed computer systems in the world. The project was started in 1993 and publishes an updated list of the supercomputers twice a year. The first of these updates always coincides with the International Supercomputing Conference in June, and the second is presented at the ACM/IEEE Supercomputing Conference in November. The project aims to provide a reliable basis for tracking and detecting trends in high-performance computing and bases rankings on HPL benchmarks,[1] a portable implementation of the high-performance LINPACK benchmark written in Fortran for distributed-memory computers.

The 60th TOP500 was published in November 2022. Since June 2022, the United States' Frontier is the most powerful supercomputer on TOP500, reaching 1102 petaFlops (1.102 exaFlops) on the LINPACK benchmarks.[2] The United States has by far the highest share of total computing power on the list (nearly 50%),[3] while China currently leads the list in number of systems with 173 supercomputers, with the U.S. not far behind in second place.

The TOP500 list is compiled by Jack Dongarra of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Erich Strohmaier and Horst Simon of the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center (NERSC) and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), and, until his death in 2014, Hans Meuer of the University of Mannheim, Germany.

The TOP500 project also includes lists such as Green500 (measuring energy efficiency) and HPCG (measuring I/O bandwidth).

History

Rapid growth of supercomputer performance, based on data from the top500.org website. The loga­rithmic y-axis shows performance in GFLOPS.
  Combined performance of 500 largest supercomputers
  Fastest supercomputer
  Supercomputer in 500th place

In the early 1990s, a new definition of supercomputer was needed to produce meaningful statistics. After experimenting with metrics based on processor count in 1992, the idea arose at the University of Mannheim to use a detailed listing of installed systems as the basis. In early 1993, Jack Dongarra was persuaded to join the project with his LINPACK benchmarks. A first test version was produced in May 1993, partly based on data available on the Internet, including the following sources:[4][5]

  • "List of the World's Most Powerful Computing Sites" maintained by Gunter Ahrendt[6]
  • David Kahaner, the director of the Asian Technology Information Program (ATIP);[7] published a report in 1992, titled "Kahaner Report on Supercomputer in Japan"[5] which had an immense amount of data.

The information from those sources was used for the first two lists. Since June 1993, the TOP500 is produced bi-annually based on site and vendor submissions only.

Since 1993, performance of the No. 1 ranked position has grown steadily in accordance with Moore's law, doubling roughly every 14 months. In June 2018, Summit was fastest with an Rpeak[8] of 187.6593 PFLOPS. For comparison, this is over 1,432,513 times faster than the Connection Machine CM-5/1024 (1,024 cores), which was the fastest system in November 1993 (twenty-five years prior) with an Rpeak of 131.0 GFLOPS.[9]

Architecture and operating systems

Share of processor families in TOP500 supercomputers by year

As of August 2022, all supercomputers on TOP500 are 64-bit, mostly based on CPUs using the x86-64 instruction set architecture. Of these, 384 are Intel EMT64-based and 101 are AMD AMD64-based, with the latter including the top 8 supercomputers. The remaining 15 supercomputers are all based on RISC architectures, including six based on ARM64 and seven based on the Power ISA used by IBM Power microprocessors.

In recent years heterogeneous computing, mostly using Nvidia's graphics processing units (GPUs) or Intel's x86-based Xeon Phi as coprocessors, has dominated the TOP500 because of better performance per watt ratios and higher absolute performance, while AMD GPUs have taken the top 1 and displaced Nvidia in top 10 part of the list. The recent exceptions include the aforementioned Fugaku, Sunway TaihuLight, and K computer. Tianhe-2A is also an interesting exception, as US sanctions prevented use of Xeon Phi; instead, it was upgraded to use the Chinese-designed Matrix-2000[10] accelerators.

Two computers which first appeared on the list in 2018 are based on architectures new to the TOP500. One was a new x86-64 microarchitecture from Chinese manufacturer Sugon, using Hygon Dhyana CPUs (these resulted from a collaboration with AMD, and are a minor variant of Zen-based AMD EPYC) and was ranked 38th, now 117th,[11] and the other was the first ARM-based computer on the list – using Cavium ThunderX2 CPUs.[12] Before the ascendancy of 32-bit x86 and later 64-bit x86-64 in the early 2000s, a variety of RISC processor families made up most TOP500 supercomputers, including SPARC, MIPS, PA-RISC, and Alpha.

Share of operating systems families in TOP500 supercomputers by time trend

All the fastest supercomputers since the Earth Simulator supercomputer have used operating systems based on Linux. Since November 2017, all the listed supercomputers use an operating system based on the Linux kernel.[13][14]

Since November 2015, no computer on the list runs Windows (while Microsoft reappeared on the list in 2021 with Ubuntu based on Linux). In November 2014, Windows Azure[15] cloud computer was no longer on the list of fastest supercomputers (its best rank was 165th in 2012), leaving the Shanghai Supercomputer Center's Magic Cube as the only Windows-based supercomputer on the list, until it also dropped off the list. It was ranked 436th in its last appearance on the list released in June 2015, while its best rank was 11th in 2008.[16] There are no longer any Mac OS computers on the list. It had at most five such systems at a time, one more than the Windows systems that came later, while the total performance share for Windows was higher. Their relative performance share of the whole list was however similar, and never high for either. In 2004 System X supercomputer based on Mac OS X (Xserve, with 2,200 PowerPC 970 processors) once ranked 7th place.[17]

It has been well over a decade since MIPS systems dropped entirely off the list[18] though the Gyoukou supercomputer that jumped to 4th place[19] in November 2017 had a MIPS-based design as a small part of the coprocessors. Use of 2,048-core coprocessors (plus 8× 6-core MIPS, for each, that "no longer require to rely on an external Intel Xeon E5 host processor"[20]) made the supercomputer much more energy efficient than the other top 10 (i.e. it was 5th on Green500 and other such ZettaScaler-2.2-based systems take first three spots).[21] At 19.86 million cores, it was by far the largest system by core-count, with almost double that of the then-best manycore system, the Chinese Sunway TaihuLight.

TOP 500

As of November 2023, the number one supercomputer, Frontier, an AMD-based system, is also the number two system on Green500.[22] The leader on Green500 is the even smaller new Henri, Nvidia-based supercomputer. In June 2022, the top 4 systems of Graph500 both used AMD CPUs and AMD accelerators.

After an upgrade, for the 56th TOP500 in November 2020,

Fugaku grew its HPL performance to 442 petaflops, a modest increase from the 416 petaflops the system achieved when it debuted in June 2020. More significantly, the ARMv8.2 based Fugaku increased its performance on the new mixed precision HPC-AI benchmark to 2.0 exaflops, besting its 1.4 exaflops mark recorded six months ago. These represent the first benchmark measurements above one exaflop for any precision on any type of hardware.[23]

Summit, a previously fastest supercomputer, is currently highest-ranked IBM-made supercomputer; with IBM POWER9 CPUs. Sequoia became the last IBM Blue Gene/Q model to drop completely off the list; it had been ranked 10th on the 52nd list (and 1st on the June 2012, 41st list, after an upgrade).

For the first time, all 500 systems deliver a petaflop or more on the High Performance Linpack (HPL) benchmark, with the entry level to the list now at 1.022 petaflops." However, for a different benchmark "Summit and Sierra remain the only two systems to exceed a petaflop on the HPCG benchmark, delivering 2.9 petaflops and 1.8 petaflops, respectively. The average HPCG result on the current list is 213.3 teraflops, a marginal increase from 211.2 six months ago.[24]

Microsoft is back on the TOP500 list with six Microsoft Azure instances (that use/are benchmarked with Ubuntu, so all the supercomputers are still Linux-based), with CPUs and GPUs from same vendors, the fastest one currently 11th,[25] and another older/slower previously made 10th.[26] And Amazon with one AWS instance currently ranked 64th (it was previously ranked 40th). The number of Arm-based supercomputers is 6, currently all Arm-based supercomputers use the same Fujitsu CPU as in the number 2 system, with the next one previously ranked 13th, now 25th.[27]

Top 10 positions of the 62nd TOP500 in November 2023[28]
Rank (previous) Rmax
Rpeak
(PetaFLOPS)		 Name Model CPU cores Accelerator (e.g. GPU) cores Total Cores (CPUs + Accelerators) Interconnect Manufacturer Site
country		 Year Operating
system
1 Steady 1,194.00
1,679.82		 Frontier HPE Cray EX235a 561,664
(8,776 × 64-core Optimized 3rd Generation EPYC 64C @2.0 GHz)		 36,992 × 220 AMD Instinct MI250X 8,699,904 Slingshot-11 HPE Oak Ridge National Laboratory
 United States		 2023 Linux (HPE Cray OS-SUSE)
2 New entry 585.34
1,059.33		 Aurora HPE Cray EX 565,656
(10,878 × 52-core Intel Xeon Max 9470 @2.4 GHz)		 32,634 × 128 Intel Max 1550 4,742,808 Slingshot-11 HPE Argonne National Laboratory
 United States		 2023 Linux (HPE Cray OS-SUSE)
3 New entry 561.20
846.84		 Eagle Microsoft NDv5 93,600
(1,950 × 48-core Intel Xeon Platinum 8480C @2.0 GHz)		 7,800 × 132 Nvidia Hopper H100 1,123,200 NVIDIA Infiniband NDR Microsoft Microsoft
 United States		 2023 Linux (Ubuntu 22.04)
4 Decrease 442.010
537.212		 Fugaku Supercomputer Fugaku 7,630,848
(158,976 × 48-core Fujitsu A64FX @2.2 GHz)		 - 7,630,848 Tofu interconnect D Fujitsu RIKEN Center for Computational Science
 Japan		 2020 Linux (RHEL)
5 Decrease 309.10
428.70		 LUMI HPE Cray EX235a 186,624
(2,916 × 64-core Optimized 3rd Generation EPYC 64C @2.0 GHz)		 11,664 × 220 AMD Instinct MI250X 2,752,704 Slingshot-11 HPE EuroHPC JU
 European Union, Kajaani,  Finland		 2022 Linux (HPE Cray OS-SUSE)
6 Decrease 238.70
304.47		 Leonardo BullSequana XH2000 110,592
(3,456 × 32-core Xeon Platinum 8358 @2.6 GHz)		 15,872 × 108 Nvidia Ampere A100 1,824,768 Nvidia HDR100 Infiniband Atos EuroHPC JU
 European Union, Bologna,  Italy		 2023 Linux
7 Decrease 148.600
200.795		 Summit IBM Power System
AC922		 202,752
(9,216 × 22-core IBM POWER9 @3.07 GHz)		 27,648 × 80 Nvidia Tesla V100 2,414,592 InfiniBand EDR IBM Oak Ridge National Laboratory
 United States		 2018 Linux (RHEL 7.4)
8 New entry 138.20
265.57		 MareNostrum 5 ACC BullSequana XH3000 89,600
(2,240 × 40-core Intel Xeon Platinum 8460Y @2.3 GHz)		 4,480 × 132 Nvidia Hopper H100 680,960 Infiniband NDR200 BullSequana EuroHPC JU
 European Union, Barcelona,  Spain		 2023 Linux (RedHat 9.1)
9 New entry 121.40
188.65		 Eos NVIDIA DGX SuperPOD Nvidia SuperPOD 46,592
(832 × 56-core Intel Xeon Platinum 8480C @3.8 GHz)		 3,328 × 132 Nvidia Hopper H100 485,888 Infiniband NDR400 Nvidia Nvidia
 United States		 2023 Linux (Ubuntu 22.04.3 LTS)
10 Decrease 94.640
125.712		 Sierra IBM Power System
S922LC		 190,080
(8,640 × 22-core IBM POWER9 @3.1 GHz)		 17,280 × 80 Nvidia Tesla V100 1,572,480 InfiniBand EDR IBM Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
 United States		 2018 Linux (RHEL)

Legend:[29]

  • Rank – Position within the TOP500 ranking. In the TOP500 list table, the computers are ordered first by their Rmax value. In the case of equal performances (Rmax value) for different computers, the order is by Rpeak. For sites that have the same computer, the order is by memory size and then alphabetically.
  • Rmax – The highest score measured using the LINPACK benchmarks suite. This is the number that is used to rank the computers. Measured in quadrillions of 64-bit floating point operations per second, i.e., petaFLOPS.[30]
  • Rpeak – This is the theoretical peak performance of the system. Computed in petaFLOPS.
  • Name – Some supercomputers are unique, at least on its location, and are thus named by their owner.
  • Model – The computing platform as it is marketed.
  • Processor – The instruction set architecture or processor microarchitecture, alongside GPU and accelerators when available.
  • Interconnect – The interconnect between computing nodes. InfiniBand is most used (38%) by performance share, while Gigabit Ethernet is most used (54%) by number of computers.
  • Manufacturer – The manufacturer of the platform and hardware.
  • Site – The name of the facility operating the supercomputer.
  • Country – The country in which the computer is located.
  • Year – The year of installation or last major update.
  • Operating system – The operating system that the computer uses.

Other rankings

Top countries

Numbers below represent the number of computers in the TOP500 that are in each of the listed countries or territories. As of 2023, United States has the most supercomputers on the list, with 161 machines. The United States has the highest aggregate computational power at 3,639 Petaflops Rmax with Japan second (654 Pflop/s) and China third (398 Pflop/s).

Distribution of supercomputers in the TOP500 list by country (as of November 2023)[31]
Country or Territory Systems
 United States
161
 China
104
 Germany
36
 Japan
32
 France
23
 United Kingdom
15
 Italy
12
 South Korea
12
 Canada
10
 Netherlands
10
 Brazil
9
 Russia
7
 Saudi Arabia
7
 Sweden
6
 Australia
6
 Taiwan
5
 Norway
5
 India
4
 Ireland
4
 Poland
4
 Finland
3
 Spain
3
 Singapore
3
  Switzerland
3
 Czechia
2
 Slovenia
2
 Austria
2
 Bulgaria
2
 Luxembourg
2
 Thailand
1
Distribution of supercomputers in the TOP500 list by country and by year
Country/Region Nov 2023[32] Jun 2023[33] Nov 2022[34] Jun 2022[35] Nov 2021[36] Jun 2021[37] Nov 2020[38] Jun 2020[39] Nov 2019[40] Jun 2019[41] Nov 2018[42] Jun 2018[43] Nov 2017[44] Jun 2017[45] Nov 2016[46] Jun 2016[47] Nov 2015[48] Jun 2015[49] Nov 2014[50] Jun 2014[51] Nov 2013[52] Jun 2013[53] Nov 2012[54] Jun 2012[55] Nov 2011[56] Jun 2011[57] Nov 2010[58] Jun 2010[59] Nov 2009[60] Jun 2009[61] Nov 2008[62] Jun 2008[63] Nov 2007[64] Jun 2007[65] Nov 2006[66]
 United States161150127128149122113114117116109124143168171165199233231232264252251252263255274282277291290257283281309
 EU1121031019283937979879291938699959394122110103899789969510910812613713414016913311582
 China104134162173173188214226228220227206202160171168109376176636672687461412421211512101318
 Germany3636343126231716161317212128312633372622201919202030262427292546312418
 Japan3233313332343429292831363533272937403230283032353026261816151722202330
 France2324242219161819182018181818201818273027222321222325262726232634171312
 United Kingdom1514151211111210111820221517131118293030232924252727253845444653484230
 Italy1277666675565686544355678456766116658
 South Korea1288675333567584710998544334312011156
 Canada10101014111112129896561166691091110986798225108
 Netherlands108861116151515136964332355320001243335682
 Brazil99865644331102346644332322211021124
 Russia77777322323433577895588551211118589752
 Saudi Arabia76666653333446556744343334644200024
 Sweden6665432222435545355357643568710897101
 Australia65553222355544354696557646411111144
 Taiwan5222223222211000011111332200012311102
 Norway54321333201111111233333301322222323
 India4433333223454459111199121185224536869810
 Ireland45531141414141312742130001200331111111001
 Poland43354421114456766722234565653463100
 Finland33343222121123252232223112132111531
 Spain31111111222211112222232432336567967
 Singapore33331444453211110000000112211100122
  Switzerland34443332242333436676544134455446755
 Czechia22222211111111111100000000000000000
 Slovenia22222200000000000000000000111111000
 Austria22221111110023351111111122128500000
 Bulgaria21111100000000001100000000001110000
 Luxembourg22222200000000000000000000000000100
 Thailand11100000000000000000000000000000000
 United Arab Emirates11222222200000000000000100000000011
 Argentina10000000000000000000000000000000000
 Morocco11111110000000000000000000000000000
 Hungary11110000000000001110000000000000000
 Belgium11100000000001120112111212201122141
 Hong Kong00000111110000001111210000111100000
 South Africa00000000032111110000000110011010012
 Denmark00000000010002222221111122230030101
 New Zealand00000000001111311000000000578546111
 Mexico00000000000010001100001000000110021
 Croatia00000000000000001000000000000000000
 Greece00000000000000000100000000000000000
 Israel00000000000000000122221332022110002
 Malaysia00000000000000000111000000001112343
 Slovak Republic00000000000000000000001100000000000
 Turkey00000000000000000000000000010000211
 Cyprus00000000000000000000000000000001000
 Egypt00000000000000000000000000000001100
 Indonesia00000000000000000000000000000000110
 Philippines00000000000000000000000000000000010
 Vietnam00000000000000000000000000000000010

Fastest supercomputer in TOP500 by country

(As of June 2022[67])

Systems ranked No. 1

Additional statistics

By number of systems as of June 2021:[75]

Top five accelerators/co-processors
Accelerator Systems
NVIDIA TESLA V100 (Launched: 2017)
80
NVIDIA AMPERE A100 (Launched: 2020)
15
NVIDIA TESLA V100 SXM2 (Launched: 2017)
12
NVIDIA TESLA P100 (Launched: 2016)
8
NVIDIA AMPERE A100 SXM4 40 GB (Launched: 2020)
5
Top five manufacturers by system quantity
Manufacturer Systems
Lenovo
184
Inspur
58
Sugon
45
Hewlett Packard Enterprise
39
Atos
36
Top five operating systems
Operating System Systems
Linux
264
CentOS
89
Cray Linux Environment
31
bullx SCS
12
Red Hat Enterprise Linux
12

Note: All operating systems of the TOP500 systems are Linux-family based, but Linux above is generic Linux.

Sunway TaihuLight is the system with the most CPU cores (10,649,600). Tianhe-2 has the most GPU/accelerator cores (4,554,752). Fugaku is the system with the greatest power consumption with 29,900 kilowatts.

New developments in supercomputing

In November 2014, it was announced that the United States was developing two new supercomputers to exceed China's Tianhe-2 in its place as world's fastest supercomputer. The two computers, Sierra and Summit, will each exceed Tianhe-2's 55 peak petaflops. Summit, the more powerful of the two, will deliver 150–300 peak petaflops.[76] On 10 April 2015, US government agencies banned selling chips, from Nvidia to supercomputing centers in China as "acting contrary to the national security ... interests of the United States";[77] and Intel Corporation from providing Xeon chips to China due to their use, according to the US, in researching nuclear weapons – research to which US export control law bans US companies from contributing – "The Department of Commerce refused, saying it was concerned about nuclear research being done with the machine."[78]

On 29 July 2015, President Obama signed an executive order creating a National Strategic Computing Initiative calling for the accelerated development of an exascale (1000 petaflop) system and funding research into post-semiconductor computing.[79]

In June 2016, Japanese firm Fujitsu announced at the International Supercomputing Conference that its future exascale supercomputer will feature processors of its own design that implement the ARMv8 architecture. The Flagship2020 program, by Fujitsu for RIKEN plans to break the exaflops barrier by 2020 through the Fugaku supercomputer, (and "it looks like China and France have a chance to do so and that the United States is content – for the moment at least – to wait until 2023 to break through the exaflops barrier."[80]) These processors will also implement extensions to the ARMv8 architecture equivalent to HPC-ACE2 that Fujitsu is developing with Arm.[80]

In June 2016, Sunway TaihuLight became the No. 1 system with 93 petaflop/s (PFLOP/s) on the Linpack benchmark.[81]

In November 2016, Piz Daint was upgraded, moving it from 8th to 3rd, leaving the US with no systems under the TOP3 for only the 2nd time ever.[82][83]

Inspur has been one of the largest HPC system manufacturer based out of Jinan, China. As of May 2017, Inspur has become the third manufacturer to have manufactured 64-way system – a record which has been previously mastered by IBM and HP. The company has registered over $10B in revenues and have successfully provided a number of HPC systems to countries outside China such as Sudan, Zimbabwe, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela. Inspur was also a major technology partner behind both the supercomputers from China, namely Tianhe-2 and Taihu which lead the top 2 positions of TOP500 supercomputer list up to November 2017. Inspur and Supermicro released a few platforms aimed at HPC using GPU such as SR-AI and AGX-2 in May 2017.[84]

In November 2017, for the second time in a row there were no system from the US under the TOP3. No. 1 and No. 2 were installed in China, a system in Switzerland at #3, and a new system in Japan was #4 pushing the top US system to #5.[85]

In June 2018, Summit, an IBM-built system at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Tennessee, US, took the No. 1 spot with a performance of 122.3 petaflop/s (PFLOP/s), and Sierra, a very similar system at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, CA, USA took #3. These two system took also the first two spots on the HPCG benchmark. Due to Summit and Sierra, the US took back the lead as consumer of HPC performance with 38.2% of the overall installed performance while China was second with 29.1% of the overall installed performance. For the first time ever, the leading HPC manufacturer is not a US company. Lenovo took the lead with 23.8% of systems installed. It is followed by HPE with 15.8%, Inspur with 13.6%, Cray with 11.2%, and Sugon with 11%. [86]

On 18 March 2019, the United States Department of Energy and Intel announced the first exaFLOP supercomputer would be operational at Argonne National Laboratory by the end of 2021. The computer, named Aurora, is to be delivered to Argonne by Intel and Cray.[87][88]

On 7 May 2019, The U.S. Department of Energy announced a contract with Cray to build the "Frontier" supercomputer at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Frontier is anticipated to be operational in 2021 and, with a performance of greater than 1.5 exaflops, should then be the world's most powerful computer.[89]

Since June 2019, all TOP500 systems deliver a petaflop or more on the High Performance Linpack (HPL) benchmark, with the entry level to the list now at 1.022 petaflops.[90]

In May 2022, the Frontier supercomputer broke the exascale barrier, completing more than a quintillion 64-bit floating point arithmetic calculations per second. Frontier clocked in at approximately 1.1 exaflops, beating out the previous record-holder, Fugaku.[91][92]

Large machines not on the list

Some major systems are not on the list. A prominent example is the NCSA's Blue Waters which publicly announced the decision not to participate in the list[93] because they do not feel it accurately indicates the ability of any system to do useful work.[94] Other organizations decide not to list systems for security and/or commercial competitiveness reasons. One such example is the National Supercomputing Center at Qingdao's OceanLight supercomputer, completed in March 2021, which was submitted for, and won, the Gordon Bell Prize. The computer is an exaflop computer, but was not submitted to the TOP500 list; the first exaflop machine submitted to the TOP500 list was Frontier. Analysts suspected that the reason the NSCQ did not submit what would otherwise have been the world's first exascale supercomputer was to avoid inflaming political sentiments and fears within the United States, in the context of the United States – China trade war.[95] Additional purpose-built machines that are not capable or do not run the benchmark were not included, such as RIKEN MDGRAPE-3 and MDGRAPE-4. A Google Tensor Processing Unit v4 pod is capable of 1.1 exaflops of peak performance,[96] however these units are highly specialized to run machine learning workloads and the TOP500 measures a specific benchmark algorithm using a specific numeric precision.

Computers and architectures that have dropped off the list

IBM Roadrunner[97] is no longer on the list (nor is any other using the Cell coprocessor, or PowerXCell).

Although Itanium-based systems reached second rank in 2004,[98][99] none now remain.

Similarly (non-SIMD-style) vector processors (NEC-based such as the Earth simulator that was fastest in 2002[100]) have also fallen off the list. Also the Sun Starfire computers that occupied many spots in the past now no longer appear.

The last non-Linux computers on the list – the two AIX ones – running on POWER7 (in July 2017 ranked 494th and 495th[101] originally 86th and 85th), dropped off the list in November 2017.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to TOP500.

References

  1. ↑ A. Petitet; R. C. Whaley; J. Dongarra; A. Cleary (24 February 2016). "HPL – A Portable Implementation of the High-Performance Linpack Benchmark for Distributed-Memory Computers". ICL – UTK Computer Science Department. Archived from the original on 2 November 2000. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
  2. ↑ "June 2022 | TOP500". www.top500.org. Archived from the original on 9 June 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
  3. ↑ "List Statistics | TOP500". Archived from the original on 18 July 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
  4. ↑ "An Interview with Jack Dongarra by Alan Beck, editor in chief HPCwire". Archived from the original on 28 September 2007.
  5. 1 2 "Statistics on Manufacturers and Continents". Archived from the original on 18 September 2007. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  6. ↑ "The TOP25 Supercomputer Sites". Archived from the original on 23 January 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  7. ↑ "Where does Asia stand? This rising supercomputing power is reaching for real-world HPC leadership". Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  8. ↑ Rpeak – This is the theoretical peak performance of the system. Measured in PetaFLOPS.
  9. ↑ "Sublist Generator". Archived from the original on 27 August 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2018.
  10. ↑ "Matrix-2000 - NUDT - WikiChip". en.wikichip.org. Archived from the original on 19 July 2019. Retrieved 6 October 2019.
  11. ↑ "Advanced Computing System(PreE) - Sugon TC8600, Hygon Dhyana 32C 2GHz, Deep Computing Processor, 200Gb 6D-Torus | TOP500 Supercomputer Sites". www.top500.org. Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
  12. ↑ "Astra - Apollo 70, Cavium ThunderX2 CN9975-2000 28C 2GHz, 4xEDR Infiniband | TOP500 Supercomputer Sites". www.top500.org. Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
  13. ↑ "Top500 – List Statistics". www.top500.org. November 2017. Archived from the original on 19 November 2012. Retrieved 30 November 2017.
  14. ↑ "Linux Runs All of the World's Fastest Supercomputers". The Linux Foundation. 20 November 2017. Archived from the original on 26 November 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2020.
  15. ↑ "Microsoft Windows Azure". Archived from the original on 21 February 2019. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
  16. ↑ "Magic Cube – Dawning 5000A, QC Opteron 1.9 GHz, Infiniband, Windows HPC 2008". Archived from the original on 21 February 2019. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
  17. ↑ "System X - 1100 Dual 2.3 GHz Apple XServe/Mellanox Infiniband 4X/Cisco GigE | TOP500". www.top500.org. Archived from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  18. ↑ "ORIGIN 2000 195/250 MHz | TOP500 Supercomputer Sites". www.top500.org. Archived from the original on 16 November 2017. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
  19. ↑ "Gyoukou - ZettaScaler-2.2 HPC system, Xeon D-1571 16C 1.3 GHz, Infiniband EDR, PEZY-SC2 700 MHz | TOP500". www.top500.org. Archived from the original on 28 September 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
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