Isotopes of silver

Isotopes of silver (₄₇Ag)
γ	–
γ	–
IT	108Ag
γ	–
γ	–
γ	–
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Ag)
	107.8682±0.0002; 107.87±0.01 (abridged);

Naturally occurring silver (₄₇Ag) is composed of the two stable isotopes ¹⁰⁷Ag and ¹⁰⁹Ag in almost equal proportions, with ¹⁰⁷Ag being slightly more abundant (51.839% natural abundance). Notably, silver is the only element with all stable istopes having nuclear spins of 1/2. Thus both ¹⁰⁷Ag and ¹⁰⁹Ag nuclei produce narrow lines in nuclear magnetic resonance spectra.^[4]

40 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being ¹⁰⁵Ag with a half-life of 41.29 days, ¹¹¹Ag with a half-life of 7.43 days, and ¹¹²Ag with a half-life of 3.13 hours.

All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than an hour, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 3 minutes. This element has numerous meta states, with the most stable being ^108mAg (half-life 439 years), ^110mAg (half-life 249.86 days) and ^106mAg (half-life 8.28 days).

Isotopes of silver range in atomic weight from 91.960 u (⁹²Ag) to 132.969 u (¹³³Ag). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, ¹⁰⁷Ag, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before ¹⁰⁷Ag are palladium (element 46) isotopes and the primary products after are cadmium (element 48) isotopes.

The palladium isotope ¹⁰⁷Pd decays by beta emission to ¹⁰⁷Ag with a half-life of 6.5 million years. Iron meteorites are the only objects with a high enough palladium/silver ratio to yield measurable variations in ¹⁰⁷Ag abundance. Radiogenic ¹⁰⁷Ag was first discovered in the Santa Clara meteorite in 1978.

The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a nucleosynthetic event. ¹⁰⁷Pd versus ¹⁰⁷Ag correlations observed in bodies, which have clearly been melted since the accretion of the Solar System, must reflect the presence of live short-lived nuclides in the early Solar System.

List of isotopes

Nuclide ^{[n 1]}	Z	N	Isotopic mass (Da)^[5] ^{[n 2]}^{[n 3]}	Half-life^[1] ^{[n 4]}	Decay mode^[1] ^{[n 5]}	Daughter isotope ^{[n 6]}^{[n 7]}	Spin and parity^[1] ^{[n 8]}^{[n 4]}	Natural abundance (mole fraction)
Nuclide ^{[n 1]}	Excitation energy^{[n 4]}			Half-life^[1] ^{[n 4]}	Decay mode^[1] ^{[n 5]}	Daughter isotope ^{[n 6]}^{[n 7]}	Spin and parity^[1] ^{[n 8]}^{[n 4]}	Normal proportion^[1]	Range of variation
⁹²Ag	47	45	91.95971(43)#	1# ms [>400 ns]	β⁺	⁹²Pd
⁹²Ag	47	45	91.95971(43)#	1# ms [>400 ns]	p	⁹¹Pd
⁹³Ag	47	46	92.95019(43)#	228(16) ns	β⁺	⁹³Pd	9/2+#
					p	⁹²Pd
					β⁺, p	⁹²Rh
⁹⁴Ag	47	47	93.94374(43)#	27(2) ms	β⁺ (>99.8%)	⁹⁴Pd	0+#
⁹⁴Ag	47	47	93.94374(43)#	27(2) ms	β⁺, p (<0.2%)	⁹³Rh	0+#
^94m1Ag	1350(400)# keV			470(10) ms	β⁺ (83%)	⁹⁴Pd	(7+)
^94m1Ag	1350(400)# keV			470(10) ms	β⁺, p (17%)	⁹³Rh	(7+)
^94m2Ag	6500(550)# keV			400(40) ms	β⁺ (~68.4%)	⁹⁴Pd	(21+)
					β⁺, p (~27%)	⁹³Rh
					p (4.1%)	⁹³Pd
					2p (0.5%)	⁹²Rh
⁹⁵Ag	47	48	94.93569(43)#	1.78(6) s	β⁺ (97.7%)	⁹⁵Pd	(9/2+)
⁹⁵Ag	47	48	94.93569(43)#	1.78(6) s	β⁺, p (2.3%)	⁹⁴Rh	(9/2+)
^95m1Ag	344.2(3) keV			<0.5 s	IT	⁹⁵Ag	(1/2−)
^95m2Ag	2531.3(15) keV			<16 ms	IT	⁹⁵Ag	(23/2+)
^95m3Ag	4860.0(15) keV			<40 ms	IT	⁹⁵Ag	(37/2+)
⁹⁶Ag	47	49	95.93074(10)	4.45(3) s	β⁺ (95.8%)	⁹⁶Pd	(8+)
⁹⁶Ag	47	49	95.93074(10)	4.45(3) s	β⁺, p (4.2%)	⁹⁵Rh	(8+)
^96m1Ag	0(50)# keV			6.9(5) s	β⁺ (85.1%)	⁹⁶Pd	(2+)
^96m1Ag	0(50)# keV			6.9(5) s	β⁺, p (14.9%)	⁹⁵Rh	(2+)
^96m2Ag	2461.4(3) keV			103.2(45) μs	IT	⁹⁶Ag	(13-)
^96m3Ag	2686.7(4) keV			1.561(16) μs	IT	⁹⁶Ag	(15+)
^96m4Ag	6951.8(14) keV			132(17) ns	IT	⁹⁶Ag	(19+)
⁹⁷Ag	47	50	96.923881(13)	25.5(3) s	β⁺	⁹⁷Pd	(9/2+)
^97mAg	620(40) keV			100# ms			(1/2-#)
⁹⁸Ag	47	51	97.92156(4)	47.5(3) s	β⁺ (99.99%)	⁹⁸Pd	(6)+
⁹⁸Ag	47	51	97.92156(4)	47.5(3) s	β⁺, p (.0012%)	⁹⁷Rh	(6)+
^98mAg	107.28(10) keV			161(7) ns	IT	⁹⁸Ag	(4+)
⁹⁹Ag	47	52	98.917646(7)	2.07(5) min	β⁺	⁹⁹Pd	(9/2)+
^99mAg	506.2(4) keV			10.5(5) s	IT	⁹⁹Ag	(1/2−)
¹⁰⁰Ag	47	53	99.916115(5)	2.01(9) min	β⁺	¹⁰⁰Pd	(5)+
^100mAg	15.52(16) keV			2.24(13) min	IT	¹⁰⁰Ag	(2)+
^100mAg	15.52(16) keV			2.24(13) min	β⁺	¹⁰⁰Pd	(2)+
¹⁰¹Ag	47	54	100.912684(5)	11.1(3) min	β⁺	¹⁰¹Pd	9/2+
^101mAg	274.1(3) keV			3.10(10) s	IT	¹⁰¹Ag	1/2−
¹⁰²Ag	47	55	101.911705(9)	12.9(3) min	β⁺	¹⁰²Pd	5+
^102mAg	9.40(7) keV			7.7(5) min	β⁺ (51%)	¹⁰²Pd	2+
^102mAg	9.40(7) keV			7.7(5) min	IT (49%)	¹⁰²Ag	2+
¹⁰³Ag	47	56	102.908961(4)	65.7(7) min	β⁺	¹⁰³Pd	7/2+
^103mAg	134.45(4) keV			5.7(3) s	IT	¹⁰³Ag	1/2−
¹⁰⁴Ag	47	57	103.908624(5)	69.2(10) min	β⁺	¹⁰⁴Pd	5+
^104mAg	6.90(22) keV			33.5(20) min	β⁺ (>99.93%)	¹⁰⁴Pd	2+
^104mAg	6.90(22) keV			33.5(20) min	IT (<0.07%)	¹⁰⁴Ag	2+
¹⁰⁵Ag	47	58	104.906526(5)	41.29(7) d	β⁺	¹⁰⁵Pd	1/2−
^105mAg	25.468(16) keV			7.23(16) min	IT (99.66%)	¹⁰⁵Ag	7/2+
^105mAg	25.468(16) keV			7.23(16) min	β⁺ (.34%)	¹⁰⁵Pd	7/2+
¹⁰⁶Ag	47	59	105.906663(3)	23.96(4) min	β⁺	¹⁰⁶Pd	1+
¹⁰⁶Ag	47	59	105.906663(3)	23.96(4) min	β⁻ (rare)	¹⁰⁶Cd	1+
^106mAg	89.66(7) keV			8.28(2) d	β⁺	¹⁰⁶Pd	6+
^106mAg	89.66(7) keV			8.28(2) d	IT (rare)	¹⁰⁶Ag	6+
¹⁰⁷Ag^{[n 9]}	47	60	106.9050915(26)	Stable			1/2−	0.51839(8)
^107mAg	93.125(19) keV			44.3(2) s	IT	¹⁰⁷Ag	7/2+
¹⁰⁸Ag	47	61	107.9059502(26)	2.382(11) min	β⁻ (97.15%)	¹⁰⁸Cd	1+
¹⁰⁸Ag	47	61	107.9059502(26)	2.382(11) min	β⁺ (2.85%)	¹⁰⁸Pd	1+
^108mAg	109.466(7) keV			439(9) y	β⁺ (91.3%)	¹⁰⁸Pd	6+
^108mAg	109.466(7) keV			439(9) y	IT (8.96%)	¹⁰⁸Ag	6+
¹⁰⁹Ag^{[n 10]}	47	62	108.9047558(14)	Stable			1/2−	0.48161(8)
^109mAg	88.0337(10) keV			39.79(21) s	IT	¹⁰⁹Ag	7/2+
¹¹⁰Ag	47	63	109.9061107(14)	24.56(11) s	β⁻ (99.7%)	¹¹⁰Cd	1+
¹¹⁰Ag	47	63	109.9061107(14)	24.56(11) s	EC (.3%)	¹¹⁰Pd	1+
^110m1Ag	1.112(16) keV			660(40) ns	IT	¹¹⁰Ag	2−
^110m2Ag	117.59(5) keV			249.863(24) d	β⁻ (98.67%)	¹¹⁰Cd	6+
^110m2Ag	117.59(5) keV			249.863(24) d	IT (1.33%)	¹¹⁰Ag	6+
¹¹¹Ag^{[n 10]}	47	64	110.9052968(16)	7.433(10) d	β⁻	¹¹¹Cd	1/2−
^111mAg	59.82(4) keV			64.8(8) s	IT (99.3%)	¹¹¹Ag	7/2+
^111mAg	59.82(4) keV			64.8(8) s	β⁻ (.7%)	¹¹¹Cd	7/2+
¹¹²Ag	47	65	111.9070485(26)	3.130(8) h	β⁻	¹¹²Cd	2(−)
¹¹³Ag	47	66	112.906573(18)	5.37(5) h	β⁻	^113mCd	1/2−
^113mAg	43.50(10) keV			68.7(16) s	IT (64%)	¹¹³Ag	7/2+
^113mAg	43.50(10) keV			68.7(16) s	β⁻ (36%)	¹¹³Cd	7/2+
¹¹⁴Ag	47	67	113.908823(5)	4.6(1) s	β⁻	¹¹⁴Cd	1+
^114mAg	198.9(10) keV			1.50(5) ms	IT	¹¹⁴Ag	(6+)
¹¹⁵Ag	47	68	114.908767(20)	20.0(5) min	β⁻	^115mCd	1/2−
^115mAg	41.16(10) keV			18.0(7) s	β⁻ (79%)	¹¹⁵Cd	7/2+
^115mAg	41.16(10) keV			18.0(7) s	IT (21%)	¹¹⁵Ag	7/2+
¹¹⁶Ag	47	69	115.911387(4)	3.83(8) min	β⁻	¹¹⁶Cd	(0-)
^116m1Ag	47.90(10) keV			20(1) s	β⁻ (93%)	¹¹⁶Cd	(3+)
^116m1Ag	47.90(10) keV			20(1) s	IT (7%)	¹¹⁶Ag	(3+)
^116m2Ag	129.80(22) keV			9.3(3) s	β⁻ (92%)	¹¹⁶Cd	(6-)
^116m2Ag	129.80(22) keV			9.3(3) s	IT (8%)	¹¹⁶Ag	(6-)
¹¹⁷Ag	47	70	116.911774(15)	73.6(14) s	β⁻	^117mCd	1/2−#
^117mAg	28.6(2) keV			5.34(5) s	β⁻ (94%)	^117mCd	7/2+#
^117mAg	28.6(2) keV			5.34(5) s	IT (6%)	¹¹⁷Ag	7/2+#
¹¹⁸Ag	47	71	117.9145955(27)	3.76(15) s	β⁻	¹¹⁸Cd	(2-)
^118m1Ag	45.79(9) keV			~0.1 µs	IT	¹¹⁸Ag	1(−) to 2(−)
^118m2Ag	127.63(10) keV			2.0(2) s	β⁻ (59%)	¹¹⁸Cd	(5+)
^118m2Ag	127.63(10) keV			2.0(2) s	IT (41%)	¹¹⁸Ag	(5+)
^118m3Ag	279.37(20) keV			~0.1 µs	IT	¹¹⁸Ag	(3+)
¹¹⁹Ag	47	72	118.915570(16)	6.0(5) s	β⁻	^119mCd	1/2−#
^119mAg	20(20)# keV			2.1(1) s	β⁻	¹¹⁹Cd	7/2+#
¹²⁰Ag	47	73	119.918785(5)	1.52(7) s	β⁻ (>99.997%)	¹²⁰Cd	4(+)
¹²⁰Ag	47	73	119.918785(5)	1.52(7) s	β⁻, n (<.003%)	¹¹⁹Cd	4(+)
^120m1Ag	0(50)# keV			940(100) ms			(0−, 1-)
^120m2Ag	203.0(10) keV			384(22) ms	IT (68%)	¹²⁰Sn	7(−)
^120m2Ag	203.0(10) keV			384(22) ms	β⁻ (32%)	¹²⁰Cd	7(−)
¹²¹Ag	47	74	120.920125(13)	777(10) ms	β⁻ (99.92%)	¹²¹Cd	7/2+#
¹²¹Ag	47	74	120.920125(13)	777(10) ms	β⁻, n (.076%)	¹²⁰Cd	7/2+#
^121mAg	20(20)# keV			200# ms			1/2-#
¹²²Ag	47	75	121.92366(4)	529(13) ms	β⁻ (>99.814%)	¹²²Cd	(3+)
¹²²Ag	47	75	121.92366(4)	529(13) ms	β⁻, n (.186%)	¹²¹Cd	(3+)
^122m1Ag	80(50)# keV			550(50) ms	β⁻	¹²²Cd	(1-)
					β⁻, n (rare)	¹²¹Cd
					IT (rare)	¹²²Ag
^122m2Ag	80(50)# keV			200(50) ms	β⁻	¹²²Cd	(9-)
					β⁻, n (rare)	¹²¹Cd
					IT (rare)	¹²²Ag
^122m3Ag	171(50)# keV			6.3(1) μs	IT	¹²²Ag	(1+)
¹²³Ag	47	76	122.92532(4)	294(5) ms	β⁻ (99.44%)	¹²³Cd	(7/2+)
¹²³Ag	47	76	122.92532(4)	294(5) ms	β⁻, n (.56%)	¹²²Cd	(7/2+)
^123m1Ag	59.5(5) keV			100# ms	β⁻	¹²³Cd	(1/2-)
^123m1Ag	59.5(5) keV			100# ms	β⁻, n (rare)	¹²²Cd	(1/2-)
^123m2Ag	1450(14)# keV			202(20) ns	IT	¹²³Ag
^123m3Ag	1472.8(8) keV			393(16) ns	IT	¹²³Ag	(17/2-)
¹²⁴Ag	47	77	123.92890(27)#	177.9(26) ms	β⁻ (98.7%)	¹²⁴Cd	(2-)
¹²⁴Ag	47	77	123.92890(27)#	177.9(26) ms	β⁻, n (1.3%)	¹²³Cd	(2-)
^124m1Ag	50(50)# keV			144(20) ms	β⁻	¹²⁴Cd	9-#
^124m1Ag	50(50)# keV			144(20) ms	β⁻, n	¹²³Cd	9-#
^124m2Ag	155.6(5)# keV			140(50) ns	IT	¹²⁴Ag	(1+)
^124m3Ag	231.1(7)# keV			1.48(15) μs	IT	¹²⁴Ag	(1-)
¹²⁵Ag	47	78	124.93074(47)	160(5) ms	β⁻ (88.2%)	¹²⁵Cd	(9/2+)
¹²⁵Ag	47	78	124.93074(47)	160(5) ms	β⁻, n (11.8%)	¹²⁴Cd	(9/2+)
^125m1Ag	97.1(5)# keV			50# ms			(1/2-)
^125m2Ag	97.1(5)# keV			491(20) ns			(17/2-)
¹²⁶Ag	47	79	125.93481(22)#	52(10) ms	β⁻ (86.3%)	¹²⁶Cd	3+#
¹²⁶Ag	47	79	125.93481(22)#	52(10) ms	β⁻, n (13.7%)	¹²⁵Cd	3+#
^126m1Ag	100(100)# keV			108.4(24) ms			9-#
^126m2Ag	97.1(5)# keV			27(6) μs	IT	¹²⁶Ag	1-#
¹²⁷Ag	47	80	126.93704(22)#	89(2) ms	β⁻ (85.4%)	¹²⁷Cd	(9/2+)
¹²⁷Ag	47	80	126.93704(22)#	89(2) ms	β⁻, n (14.6%)	¹²⁶Cd	(9/2+)
^127m1Ag	20(20)# keV			20# ms			(1/2-)
^127m2Ag	1938(17) keV			67.5(9) ms	β⁻ (91.2%)	¹²⁷Cd	(27/2+)
^127m2Ag	1938(17) keV			67.5(9) ms	IT (8.8%)	¹²⁷Ag	(27/2+)
¹²⁸Ag	47	81	127.94127(32)#	60(3) ms	β⁻ (80%)	¹²⁸Cd	3+#
¹²⁸Ag	47	81	127.94127(32)#	60(3) ms	β⁻, n (20%)	¹²⁷Cd	3+#
¹²⁹Ag	47	82	128.94432(43)#	49.9(35) ms	β⁻ (>80%)	¹²⁹Cd	9/2+#
¹²⁹Ag	47	82	128.94432(43)#	49.9(35) ms	β⁻, n (<20%)	¹²⁸Cd	9/2+#
^129mAg	20(20)# keV			10# ms			1/2−#
¹³⁰Ag	47	83	129.95073(46)#	40.6(45) ms	β⁻	¹³⁰Cd	1-#
¹³¹Ag	47	84	130.95625(54)#	35(8) ms	β⁻	¹³¹Cd	9/2+#
					β⁻, n	¹³⁰Cd
					β⁻, 2n	¹²⁹Cd
¹³²Ag	47	85	131.96307(54)#	30(14) ms	β⁻	¹³²Cd	6-#
¹³³Ag	47	86	132.96878(54)#				6-#
This table header & footer:

↑ ^mAg – Excited nuclear isomer.
↑ ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
↑ # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).
1 2 3 # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
↑ Modes of decay:

EC: Electron capture

IT: Isomeric transition

n: Neutron emission

p: Proton emission
↑ Bold italics symbol as daughter – Daughter product is nearly stable.
↑ Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable.
↑ ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.
↑ Used to date certain events in the early history of the Solar System
1 2 Fission product

References

1 2 3 4 5 Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
↑ "Standard Atomic Weights: Silver". CIAAW. 1985.
↑ Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; et al. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
↑ "(Ag) Silver NMR".
↑ Wang, Meng; Huang, W.J.; Kondev, F.G.; Audi, G.; Naimi, S. (2021). "The AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references*". Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030003. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddaf.

Isotope masses from:
- Wang, Meng; Huang, W.J.; Kondev, F.G.; Audi, G.; Naimi, S. (2021). "The AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references*". Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030003. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddaf.
Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:
- Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
- de Laeter, John Robert; Böhlke, John Karl; De Bièvre, Paul; Hidaka, Hiroshi; Peiser, H. Steffen; Rosman, Kevin J. R.; Taylor, Philip D. P. (2003). "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 75 (6): 683–800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683.
- Wieser, Michael E. (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 78 (11): 2051–2066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051.

"News & Notices: Standard Atomic Weights Revised". International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 19 October 2005.
Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources.
- Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
- National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.x database". Brookhaven National Laboratory.
- Holden, Norman E. (2004). "11. Table of the Isotopes". In Lide, David R. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

[5] Ag – Excited nuclear isomer.

[7] ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.

[TMS-8] # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).

[TNN-9] 1 2 3 # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).

[10] Modes of decay:

EC: Electron capture

IT: Isomeric transition

n: Neutron emission

p: Proton emission

[11] Bold italics symbol as daughter – Daughter product is nearly stable.

[12] Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable.

[13] ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.

[14] Used to date certain events in the early history of the Solar System

[FP-15] 1 2 Fission product

[NUBASE2020-1] 1 2 3 4 5 Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.

[2] "Standard Atomic Weights: Silver". CIAAW. 1985.

[CIAAW2021-3] Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; et al. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.

[4] "(Ag) Silver NMR".

[AME2020_II-6] Wang, Meng; Huang, W.J.; Kondev, F.G.; Audi, G.; Naimi, S. (2021). "The AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references*". Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030003. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddaf.

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