Themes

Psalm 1 is, as the title suggests, the first psalm in the biblical Book of Psalms and so the first in the Sidney Psalter. As the first psalm it can be seen as setting up several themes which recur through the Psalter:

Separation of sinful from righteous

The Book of Psalms, including the Sidney Psalter, is concerned with being righteous. There are pious apologies (i. e. in Psalms 31 and 51) that blame God (i. e. in Psalm 22) and others (i. e. Psalm 109), when people are not completely sinless. However, this may be due to the recurring theme of judgement, of separating out the sinners from the righteous. This begins Psalm 1, where the wheat is literally sorted from the "chaff" – "the wicked, but like chaff" (Sidney, 2009, p. 11).

"Not with the just, be their meetings placed" (Sidney, 2009, p. 11). This may be one of the most commonly recurring themes in the Psalter. Here are a few examples:

Psalm 11:

"on them: storms, brimstone, coals he rains:
that is their share assigned.
But so of happy other side."

(Sidney Psalter, 2009, p. 218)

Psalm 145:

"He will his lovers all preserve;
He will the wicked all destroy."

(The Sidney Psalter, 2009, p. 279)

One way in which the righteous and the sinful are often separated is by the path they choose. Psalm 1 sees two paths laid out for man "ruin's way" where "wicked counsel leads" or the way of God. Paths or "the way", especially choosing the right path, is a common theme throughout the whole bible, but also within the psalms. Phillip Sidney sets up this theme firmly in Psalm 1 with the opening line referring to "tread[ing]" the right path. This path can be seen as the beginning of a journey the psalms and through this lyrical Psalter.

Footpath in the Palatine Forest, Germany

Other references to paths in the Psalter include: Psalm 16: "Thou life's path wilt make me know" (Sidney Psalter, 2009, p. 31)

Psalm 119: "and to thy paths will have a good eye" (Sidney Psalter, 2009, p. 230)

Translation differences

In this section the word "translation" refers to translation of meaning.

Biblical translations were rife in the 16th century as the growth of the Church of England promoted personal relationships with God and understanding of Holy texts. These various translations highlighted some problems with interpreting "the Word of God": How is meaning truly translated? This is particularly true with literary versions such as the Sidney Psalter, which as aesthetic interpretations may arguably cause the focus on form and courtly style to obscure the true message – or revisers of "The Whole Booke of Psalmes" thought. The examples below highlight some differences in meaning implied by different translations. Sidney's Psalm One is here compared to the anti-aesthetic King James Bible equivalent.

(Sidney Psalter, 2009, p. 11).

"and he shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water" (King James Bible, Psalm 1:3).

The main difference between the verse translations is in the addition of adjectives. For example, the adjective "freshly" arguably changes the imagery of this section, from that of a firmly rooted, strong being of nature to a weak and flexible sapling. Another interpretation of this is that Sidney's tree represents a "fresh" faith that still has room to grow with the aid of God's "sweet springs".

Equally, the inclusion of the noun "neighbours" in the following line gives new action to the "water", making the "waters neighbours" to the tree changes the relationship between the two from one of simple useful proximity to an active relationship of caring attention.

"Wicked" (Sidney, 2009, p. 11) to "ungodly" (King James Bible, Psalm 1:2).

In both line 2, verse 1 and line 1, verse 3, Sidney prefers the word "ungodly" as used in the King James Bible for the word "wicked". In the 16th century the difference between these two adjectives were not as great as it appears to a modern audience, but the different level of negative connotation remains. Often in biblical literature the "ungodly" simply need educating and saving, making them appear more as "the lost sheep"; whereas "the wicked" suggests a greater intention to do evil. Part of the definition of "wicked" in the Oxford English Dictionary reads as "inclined or addicted to wilful wrong-doing". So the change in adjective changes the level of sinners' "wilful" intent.

"But are like the chaf which the wind driveth away" (Sidney Psalter, 2009, p. 11). "But like chaf with wind/ Scattered" (King James Bible, Psalm 1:4).

In this line the main difference is clearly the term "scattered" as opposed to "driveth away". It is important to remember that the King James Bible was not completed until 1611, long after the circulation of the Psalter, so it cannot be said that Sidney softened or made harsher any terms as had not the comparative reference we see here. What can be said is that different imagery is created: Sidney's psalm portrays the wicked being separated from one another, carelessly "scattered" away, while the King James Bible gives the impression of force driving away the wicked to a separate and faraway place. "Scattered" also has positive connotations, however, especially in relation to farming. A farmer will "scatter" seeds to grow or "scatter" feed for beasts. Although this is not the implied meaning here, these connotations are significant in view of the frequency with which animal-husbandry and agricultural language appear throughout the Book of Psalms.

"But on God's law his heart's delight doth binde" (Sidney Psalter, 2009, p. 11). "But his delight is in the law of the Lord" (King James Bible, Psalm 1:2).

There are many interesting differences between these lines. First let us examine the placement of God in the sentence construction. In both sentences "God" or "the Lord" is the object however where the King James Bible uses the now standard sentence construction SVO (subject, verb, object) placing "the Lord" at the end of the sentence. The Sidney psalm has an archaic OSV (object, subject, verb) form. One reason for this could simply be to make the line fit the rhyming pattern ("binde" rhyming with "minde" at the end of the following line). But it changes the importance placed on "God"/"the Lord" by placing him in the middle of the line, where his presence has less impact than it does as the closing words in the King James Bible version.

Another difference is the inclusion of the possessive noun "heart's". As with previous examples, inclusion of extra words like these have often been put down to poetic flourishes, but they do create different interpretations of the text. By making the "delight" from the "heart" Sidney makes the "delight" a purely emotional reaction, whereas, without this addition in The King James Bible translation, the delight can equally be from the mind – happy to choose the righteous option – or soul – naturally reacting to God – or any other part of man.

Criticism

In his journal "Sir Philip Sidney's Psalms, the Sixteenth-Century Psalter, and the Nature of Lyric", Roland Greene praises Philip Sidney as "the premier English poetical theorist of the time" (p. 20, 1990). However, most criticism and reviews of the Sidney Psalter focus on the later psalms written by Mary Sidney, with Moffet terming Mary Sidney's Psalmes "sweet and heavenly tuned," (2011, p. 226). This sadly leaves a gap in critical response to first 43 Psalms, which were written by Philip Sidney before his death, though there is much on his other works.

Psalm 40 from the Sidney Psalms

However, there is some criticism of the Psalter as a whole. David Norton explains how Bray, a Sidney contemporary and a "great spreader of Christian culture", hoped that "literary appreciation (of a sort) would make people more religious." (2000, p. 130). Bray praised the Psalter as a work of art, which would make people more interested in the Bible and thereby religion.

Synopsis

Psalm 3 belongs to Sidney's Psalmes of David, as David is the subject of many of the Psalms. It is his personal thanksgiving to God for answering the prayer of an afflicted soul. In the King James Bible, the Psalm is introduced as "A Psalm of David, when he fled from Absalom his son".^[3] Absalom led a fierce and powerful rebellion against his father, seeking to take the Kingdom from him. When David is left feeling betrayed by his own son and deserted by his subjects, he turns to God in prayer and confesses his faith. The story of Absalom can be found in the two Books of Samuel. Sidney's Psalm opens with David questioning God about the ever constant presence of sinners in the world. He goes onto say that no matter how his enemies may multiply, he can rely on God to be his protector.

• 
  'David in Prayer' by Rembrandt van Rijn

Structure

As with all Sidney's poetic adaptations, Psalm 3 has a consistent rhyme scheme throughout.It is divided into six stanzas, each opening with a rhyming couplet and having an AABCCB rhyme scheme. The original biblical Psalms make no use of rhyme, which highlights the parallel between aestheticism and anti-aestheticism. However, Sidney's use of rhyme helps to maintain the psalm's traditional musical style.

Themes

Differences Between Sidney's and the King James Version Psalm 3

• 
  The King James Bible

The King James Version (KJV), published in 1611, is a literal translation of the Christian Bible from Hebrew into English and does not embrace the same aesthetic values that Sidney's Psalms do. Sidney's are considerably longer than the KJV ones, delving into more literary detail with more frequent use of metaphors, vivid imagery and elaborately poetic language. Psalms are often referred to as sacred songs or hymns, the word Psalm originating from the Greek psallein meaning "to pluck". However, despite Sidney's musical use of rhyme and rhythm, it has been argued that Sidney's Psalms inject a stronger poetic theme rather than a musical one: "Sidney and especially Pembroke put into thorough practice theories of psalmody as poetry that other authors did not, but in doing so separated their work from the mainstream use of complete metrical psalters: public congregational singing."^[5] This can be seen in Psalm 3 with the use of the word "selah" in the KJV. Selah is a musical direction used frequently at the end of a Psalm. It appears twice in Psalm 3, but does not feature in Sidney's translation. This exemplifies a lack of the musical element in favour of a poetic one.

Translation differences and the impact of phraseology

There are vast differences in translation between the Sidney Psalter and the KJV, to the extent that each line in Sidney's Psalms differs almost entirely. Sidney tends to take one image from the original Psalm and elaborate on it to an extent that one line from the KJV can be conveyed in an entire stanza. This reflects the differences of purpose behind the two translations. Whilst the KJV is meant as a literal English translation of the word of God, Sidney had more poetic and artistic intentions. His version is not merely translating the Bible into English, but into a work of art. Even slight differences in phraseology can convey an entirely new meaning. Sidney translates the phrase "O LORD, [art] a shield for me" into "Yet, Lord, Thou art my shield." The use of "thou" directly addresses God in prayer and thus creates a more personal bond between David and God. Furthermore, Sidney refers to God as "my shield", as opposed to "a shield", so strengthening the personal connection and suggesting that God is the sole protector David requires, whereas the KJV implies that he could be just one of many shields David has in his life.

Responses and influences

• 
  John Donne
• 
  George Herbert, Portrait by Robert White in 1674. From National Portrait Gallery

The metaphysical poet John Donne wrote to celebrate the Sidney Psalter, "Divine Poems Upon the Translation of the Psalms by Sir Philip Sidney and the Countess of Pembroke, His Sister", claiming that he could "scarce" call the English Church reformed until its psalter had been modelled after the poetic transcriptions of the Philip Sidney and Mary Herbert.^[6] The Sidney Psalter also had an influence^[7] on the later religious poetry of George Herbert. There are distinct similarities between the Psalter and his poem "The Temple".^[8]

Themes

The main theme of Psalm 23 is to represent God as a Shepherd there to guide mankind as a shepherd guides his sheep. Sidney also mentions being led up a "righteous path"[1].^[9] This creates a theme of faith and dutiful worship to God, almost as a show of gratitude for keeping his "sheep" safe.

Context

Sidney's Psalm 23 arises out of a psalm originally written by King David. According to Tom Wacaster, "While most commentators believe that it was written in David's youth, while he was tending sheep for his father, it might just as well have been written at a later age, when he had experienced the hardships in life and God's guidance through troubled times."^[10] This would further explain the allegorical imagery of God as the Shepherd, with David comparing his worship to that of a Sheep following the Shepherd.^[11] Sidney's version seems more intent on adding a sense of poetic styling more adept to the 16th-century Englishman. Roland Greene states that "the Psalters deserve a central location in our understanding of what sixteenth-century poets did – for they certainly wrote a prodigious volume of psalmic translations – and of what they thought about what they did."^[12] He goes on to argue "that a striking development in sixteenth-century English lyric poetry is the sustained effort by often dissimilar poets to explore the boundaries between what we might call the ritual and the fictional dimensions of lyric. By the ritual element, I mean the poem's office as directions for a performance: a script compounded of sounds that serve referential or expressive purposes in non-poetic". This could support the idea of Sidney's Psalter creating a more aesthetic approach in a context for rewriting them in more beautiful wording that is found in the original Hebrew.

Analysis

Psalm 23 applies an unconventional rhyme scheme. While the first stanza does not follow the next in rhythmic pattern, the second, third and fourth present an "ABBACC" rhyme scheme similar to an English sestet. Sidney seems to have aimed at a lyricism not found in the original translations such as the King James Version. However, it adds a sense of poetic lyricism to David's original. He makes merely subtle changes in the overall meaning behind the original translation. Many of the references, such as "green pastures" and "thy rod and thy staff" remain unchanged, but Sidney's portrayal of God is much kinder and gentler than David's.^[13] This can be seen in Sidney's specific alterations. Instead of God "maketh me to lie down in green pastures" comes "He rests me in green pastures". This creates an image of God more benevolent and calming, rather than more forceful and commanding.^[14]

Another reason for Sidney to change the meaning of Psalms is said to be to bridge understanding of their message to all, as stated in Sir Philip Sidney's Defense of Prophesying: "The Psalms had always been integral to Christian worship, but sixteenth-century Protestants placed special emphasis on them. The trials, tribulations, and joys of the Psalmist resonated deeply with the Protestant experience; the ease with which the Psalms could be set to new tunes and memorized made them a perfect vehicle for turning the Protestant message into a mass movement capable of embracing the illiterate alongside the literate." By this it seems that Sidney was attempting a more accessible version of the Psalms, removing the perception that biblical teachings must be handled by holy men such as priests or monks, and creating a unified understanding of The Bible that could be interpreted as seen by each individual.

Another example of God being a less aggressive figure in the Sidney Psalms is the way the narrative voice refers to being taken towards water. In David's original Psalm 23 God "leadeth me beside the still waters," but in Sidney's version, "by waters still, and sweet he guides my feet." This creates the idea of a God less authoritative and more assistive in letting man find their path towards heaven.

In From Testament to Covenant, Kenneth Hagen suggests, "Since Christ is the author of the New Testament, he antiquates the whole old law, including the moral law. Those who do not believe in Christ are still subject to the law, but those in Christ are free. The reason for this freedom is that Christ forgives sin and confers the Holy Spirit on Christians, who moves them to right acts. Christians do not need the law to prompt them to right deeds. They do what the law asks under the Spirit's guidance".^[15]

This suggests that by the 16th century, the Old Testament portrayal of God was becoming redundant and a more fatherly perception found in the New Testament became the reference for most Christians in England. So Sidney's portrayal of God in his Psalms would be less aggressive and commanding than the version seen in David's Psalm 23.

A similarity between both versions of Psalm 23 is the presence of Death and how it is portrayed. David describes walking through "the valley of the shadow of death" and claims to fear no evil, stating, "For thou art with me, thy rod and thy staff they comfort me." As stated by Derwin L. Grey, "King David was experiencing a time of 'doom and gloom'; he felt as though death was near. Hardship, peril, chaos, and deep suffering were invading his life. In our fallen world, these things will invade our lives, too. At some point, you and I, too, will make that long, slow, painful walk through the 'valley of the shadow of death'."^[16] However, this suggests that David has faith in his connection to God and knows that God's lead will keep him from being harmed or committing sin, keeping once again with the Shepherd theme of a pure innocent lamb being kept safe, as referenced by the image of the "staff" and "rod".

Sidney alters this: instead of a "shadow of death" he refers to "death's dark shade". This is more in line with later perceptions of evil or "Satan" taking a more physical form. In this case, Death being a looming figure attempting to sway the narrative voice from the path of Christianity, and as stated by Sidney, "Yea, though I should through valley stray, Of death's dark shade, I will No whit fear ill." It is once more suggestive that Sidney is portraying God as a more understanding being in his translation of Psalm 23. While David says he knows he will not stray because of the Lord, Sidney states that even though he may be led astray, he knows that the lord will lead him back on the right path, creating an image of a more forgiving God not found within the Old Testament.

Another key alteration that Sir Philip Sidney makes is changing "the enemy", as mentioned in David's version of Psalm 23. David evokes a sense of the enemy as more than just on the battlefield, but also those who are unfaithful, sin itself and anyone who opposes Christianity, whereas Sidney changes this to the "foe", and stating " Ev'n when foe's envious eye Doth it espy." This seems influenced by Sidney's time as a member of Queen Elizabeth's Court, until "In 1580, he incurred the Queen Elizabeth's displeasure by opposing her projected marriage to the Duke of Anjou, Roman Catholic heir to the French throne, and was dismissed from court for a time.". However he later returned, when "Elizabeth instead summoned Sidney to court, and appointed him governor of Flushing in the Netherlands." It would therefore seem that Sidney's use of the term "espy" refers to his distrust of the Catholics and the French, while his version of Psalm 23 has more of a political agenda, not one of just faith to Christianity, but to Queen Elizabeth and her court as well.^[17]

Another example of Sidney modernising Psalm 23 to reflect the Elizabethan court is his description of Heaven as a "hall", as opposed to a "house" as stated by David. David creates the sense of an eternal dwelling and a more homely place to eternally rest, whereas Sidney creates an image of God running a high court, reflecting the one that he served in before his death, in the service of Queen Elizabeth.

Themes

The themes that occur in Sidney's Psalm 43 are these:

Translation differences and criticism

John Speed's Genealogies recorded in the Sacred Scriptures (1611), bound into first King James Bible in quarto size (1612)

There are many translation differences between the Sidney Psalter and the King James Bible. This caused issues in the 16th century as the translations show different interpretations of what is the word of God. The King James Bible version of Psalm 43 is significantly shorter than Psalter's. This in itself can be problematic, as the KJB Psalm 43 is all of four lines long, whereas Psalter's is a lengthy six stanzas. This immediately would have caused controversy, especially when the Sidney Psalter is deemed to be more poetic than the KJB, while the Sternhold and Hopkins translations are less poetic than the KJB and the Sidney Psalter. The differences in the length of the psalm has been noted by critics, one being Norton, who says that due to the type of differences in the Sidney Psalter, it makes it "unsurprising that the Sidney Psalter should have remained unpublished.... The Sidney Psalter could not appeal to the religious populace." (Norton, 2000, p. 131). Again, this can be down to the translations of the Bible and its contents. As translations have been done, the question is whether the text really translates God's word from its original Hebrew. This tends to be why the Sidney Psalter is viewed more so as a literary work than an accurate translation.

Themes

Structure

Another difference from the ottava rima form Sidney uses is to have a tetrameter rather than a pentameter. This, like using eight syllables rather than eleven, brings each line round faster, again making it more song-like. Each eight-line stanza follows an ABABABCC rhyme, manipulating the scheme to fit her song-like psalm, with the first six lines in an alternating rhyme sounding more like a poem and the last two lines in a couplet sounding more like a song. These couplets also stress the message for each stanza, like the last two draw attention to the violent, dark image of dashing the children against the stones, showing the overall message of the psalm and leaving the reader with a lasting image.

Translation differences from KJV

"We hanged our harps upon the willows in the midst thereof" (Psalms 137:2)^[24]

Mary Sidney's psalms look much different from the church's King James Version even at first glance. They are a lot longer (as are the lines from Sidney's Psalm 137 compared to the KJV verse from Psalm 137 they relate to) and add description. Sidney adds that the harps are "useless, and untouched" rather than just harps. This shows that the speakers find no use for their once beloved harps as soon as they have been taken from their home, as they are refusing to play for and entertain their captors. And this is only one example of the difference in both texts, because, as Hannay says, "many of [Sidney's] Psalm paraphrases depart so radically in form and style from the biblical originals".^[20]

Overall, these were Sidney and her courtier friends' interpretations and translations of the psalms, and in the words of Norton, "the admiration of such writers helped to foster such a much more ambitious artistic approach to the Psalms in the seventeenth century."^[25]