Brazilian Quilombolas during a meeting in the capital of Brazil, Brasília.
A Quilombo in Amapá.

A quilombo (Portuguese pronunciation: [kiˈlõbu]; from the Kimbundu word kilombo, lit. 'war camp')[1] is a Brazilian hinterland settlement founded by people of African origin, and others sometimes called Carabali. Most of the inhabitants of quilombos, called quilombolas, were maroons, a term for escaped slaves.

Documentation about refugee slave communities typically uses the term mocambo for settlements, which is an Ambundu word meaning "war camp". A mocambo is typically much smaller than a quilombo. "Quilombo" was not used until the 1670s, primarily in the more southerly parts of Brazil.[2]

In the Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America, such villages or camps were called palenques. Its inhabitants are palenqueros. They spoke various Spanish-African-based creole languages such as Palenquero.

Quilombos are classified as one of the three basic forms of active resistance by enslaved Africans. They also regularly attempted to seize power and conducted armed insurrections at plantations to gain amelioration of conditions.[3] Typically, quilombos were a "pre-19th century phenomenon". In the first half of the 19th-century in Brazil, enslaved people typically took armed action as part of their resistance. The colony was undergoing both political transition, as it fought for independence from Portugal, and new tensions associated with an increased slave trade, which brought in many more native-born Africans who resisted slavery.

Origin

In 17th century Angola, a new military formation called kilombo (a fortified town surrounded by a wooden palisade) appeared among Imbangala warriors, which would soon be used in Brazil by freed Angolan slaves.[4]

Slavery in Brazil

Legal slavery was present in Brazil for approximately three centuries, with the earliest known landing of enslaved Africans taking place 52 years after the Portuguese were the first Europeans to set foot in Brazil in 1500.[3] The demand for enslaved Africans continued to increase through the 18th century, even as the Brazilian sugar economy ceased to dominate the world economy. In its place, commodity crops such as tobacco increased in prominence.[5]

During the sugar boom period (1570–1670), the sugar plantations in Brazil presented hellish conditions, even including the personal brutality of some enslavers. There was high physical exertion on workers, especially during harvest season. In addition, enslaved people were held to nearly-impossible daily production quotas while having to contend with lack of rest and food. Economically, in sugar plantations, it was cheaper for owners of enslaved Africans to work them to death and get new replacement enslaved people.[6] Conditions were so bad that even the Crown intervened on at least two occasions, forcing plantation owners to provide the people they enslaved with sufficient food.[5]

History

See Atlantic slave trade for a comprehensive presentation of slavery in Brazil.

Settlements were formed by enslaved Africans who escaped from plantations. Some enslavers, such as Friedrich von Weech, regarded the first escape attempt as a part of the "breaking in" process for new slaves. The first escape attempt would be punished severely as a deterrent for future escapes. Enslaved people who tried to escape a second time would be sent to slave prisons, and those who tried a third time would be sold.[7] In general, slaves who were caught running away were also required to wear an iron collar around their necks at all times, in addition to the punishment they received.

Not all those who escaped slavery formed settlements in Brazil. Escaping from a life of slavery was a matter of opportunity. Settlements were formed in areas with dense populations of formerly enslaved people, like Pernambuco, where the biggest collection of mocambos formed the quilombo that became Palmares. While many quilombos were formed in rural areas such as Palmares, some were formed inside of cities, such as the pt:Quilombo do Leblon inside of Rio de Janeiro.[8] Some, among them Mahommah G. Baquaqua, escaped to New York because his multiple attempts at escape and suicide led to him being sold to a ship's captain.[9]

It is widely believed that the term quilombo establishes a link between settlements and the culture of West Central Africa from where the majority of slaves were forcibly brought to Brazil. During the era of slave trafficking, natives in central Angola, called Imbangala, had created an institution called a kilombo that united various tribes of diverse lineage into a community designed for military resistance.

Many quilombos were near Portuguese plantations and settlements. To keep their freedom, they were active both in defending against capitães do mato and being commissioned to recapture other runaway slaves. At the same time, they facilitated the escape of even more enslaved persons.[10] For this reason, they were targets of the Dutch, then Portuguese colonial authorities and, later, of the Brazilian state and enslavers.

Despite the atmosphere of cooperation between some quilombos and the surrounding Portuguese settlements, they were almost always eventually destroyed. Seven of 10 major quilombos in colonial Brazil were terminated within two years of formation. Some mocambos that were farther from Portuguese settlements and the later Brazilian cities were tolerated and still exist as towns today, with their dwellers speaking Portuguese Creole languages.[11]

Quilombos

Seven of the ten major quilombos in colonial Brazil were destroyed within two years of being formed. Four fell in Bahia in 1632, 1636, 1646 and 1796. The other three met the same fate in Rio in 1650, Parahyba in 1731, and Piumhy in 1758.[12]

One quilombo, in Minas Gerais, lasted from 1712-1719. Another, the "Carlota" of Mato Grosso, was wiped out after existing for 25 years, from 1770-1795.[13]

There were also a number of smaller quilombos or mocambos. The first reported quilombo was in 1575 in Bahia. Another quilombo in Bahia was reported at the start of the seventeenth century. Between 1737-87, a small quilombo thrived in the vicinity of Sao Paulo.[14]

There were also reports of mocambos in 1591 in Jaguaripe, in 1629 in Rio Vermelho, in 1636 in Itapicuru, in 1640 in Rio Real, in 1663 in Cairu, in 1723 in Camamu, in 1741 in Santo Amaro, in 1763 in Itapao, and 1797 in Cachoeira. All of these mocambos were in the Bahia region.[15]

The Buraco de Tatu mocambo thrived for 20 years between 1743 and 1763. It was located between Salvador and Itapoa until it was eventually destroyed by a force led by Joaquim da Costa Cardozo.[16]

The region of Campo Grande and São Francisco was often populated with quilombos. In 1741, Jean Ferreira organised an expedition against a quilombo, but many runaways escaped capture. In 1746, a subsequent expedition captured 120 members of the quilombo. In 1752, an expedition led by Pere Marcos was attacked by quilimbo fighters, resulting in significant loss of life.[17]

Quilombos continued to form in the nineteenth century. In 1810, a quilombo was discovered at Linhares in Sao Paulo. A decade later, another was found in Minas. In 1828, another quilombo was discovered at Cahuca, near Recife, and a year later, an expedition was mounted against another at Corcovado, near Rio. In 1855, the Maravilha quilombo in Amazonia was destroyed.[18]

Palmares

The most famous quilombo was Palmares, an independent, self-sufficient community near Recife, established in about 1600. Palmares was massive and consisted of several settlements with a combined population of over 30,000 citizens, mostly blacks. It was to survive almost an entire century.[19]

Part of the reason for the massive size of the quilombo at Palmares was because of its location in Brazil, at the median point between the Atlantic Ocean and Guinea, an important area of the African slave trade. Quilombo dos Palmares was an autonomous community of escaped enslaved people from the Portuguese settlements in Brazil, "a region perhaps the size of Portugal in the hinterland of Bahia".[20]

In 1612, the Portuguese tried in vain to take Palmares in an expedition that proved to be very costly.[21]

In 1640, a Dutch scouting mission found that the self-freed community of Palmares was spread over two settlements, with about 6,000 living in one location, and another 5,000 in another. Dutch expeditions against Palmares in the 1640s were similarly unsuccessful.[22]

At its height, Palmares had a population of over 30,000. In the 1670s, when the Portuguese tried to take control of half of Palmares, it was estimated that the palmarista population of that half was between 15,000-20,000.[23]

Palmares thrived in the years of peace that followed the 1640s.[24]

Between 1672 and 1694, Palmares withstood, on average, one Portuguese expedition nearly every year.[25]

Ganga Zumba and Zumbi are the two best-known warrior-leaders of Palmares which, after a history of conflict with first Dutch and then Portuguese colonial authorities, finally fell to a Portuguese artillery assault in 1694.[26]

Forced to defend against repeated attacks by Portuguese colonists, the warriors of Palmares were experts in capoeira, a dance and martial art form. Portuguese soldiers sometimes stated it took more than one dragoon to capture a quilombo warrior since they would defend themselves with a strangely moving fighting technique (capoeira). The governor from that province declared that "it is harder to defeat a quilombo than the Dutch invaders".

In Brazil, both men are now honored as heroes and symbols of black pride, freedom, and democracy. As his birthday is unknown, Zumbi's execution date, November 20, is observed as Dia da Consciência Negra or "Black Awareness Day" in the states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, and his image has appeared on postage stamps, banknotes, and coins.

Mola

The Mola quilombo comprised approximately 300 formerly enslaved people and had a high degree of political, social, and military organization.[27] Felipa Maria Aranha was the first leader of the community.[28] The group was also led by Maria Luiza Piriá.[29] It was organised as a republic, with democratic voting in place.[30] Over the course of the Mola quilombo's life, it expanded to include four other similar settlements in the region; it was known as the Confederação do Itapocu.[31][29] In 1895, there were still traces of the settlement to be seen; as of 2020, they had disappeared.[32]

Curiaú

In 1992, the Rio Curiaú Environmental Protection Area was established for the inhabitants of Curiaú de Dentro, Curiaú de Fora, Casa Grande, Curralinho and Mocambo.[33] The area is located near the capital Macapá and measures 21,676 hectares (53,560 acres).[34] As of 1999, the protected area is home to about 1,500 people.[33]

Cunani

Even though Cunani is better known as the capital of the unrecognised Republic of Independent Guiana,[35] it has been designated a Quilombo settlement, and therefore, has been given territory similar to the indigenous territories.[36]

Film

A 1984 film entitled Quilombo[37] depicts the rise and fall of Palmares. Directed by Carlos Diegues, Quilombo is a historical epic that chronicles the lives of Ganga Zumba and Zumbi.

Constitution of Brazil

Article 68 of the 1988 Constitution of Brazil granted the remaining quilombos the collective ownership of the lands they had occupied since colonial times.[38] As of 2016, 294 villages have applied to be recognized as quilombos, because they were founded by escaped enslaved people and are mainly inhabited by their descendants. The certification process thus far has been slow, and 152 villages have been recognized as quilombos.[39]

In Spanish

In South American Spanish of the Southern Cone, the word quilombo has come to mean brothel; in Argentina, Bolivia, Honduras, Paraguay, and Uruguay, a mess, noise or disorder; in Venezuela, a remote or out-of-the-way place.[40]

Literature

  • Desch-Obi, M. Thomas J. (2008). Fighting for Honor: The History of African Martial Art Traditions in the Atlantic World. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-718-4.

See also

References

  1. ↑ A. de Assis Junior, "Kilómbo", Dicionário kimbundu-português, Luanda Argente, Santos, p. 127
  2. ↑ Stuart Schwartz, The Mocambo: Slave Resistance in Colonial Bahia, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 205.
  3. 1 2 Kent, R. K. (1965). "Palmares: An African State in Brazil". Journal of African History. 6 (2): 161–175. doi:10.1017/s0021853700005582. JSTOR 180194. S2CID 162914470.
  4. ↑ Desch-Obi 2008, pp. 21.
  5. 1 2 Schwartz, Stuart B. (Summer 1970). "The "Mocambo": Slave Resistance in Colonial Bahia". Journal of Social History. 3 (4): 313–333. doi:10.1353/jsh/3.4.313.
  6. ↑ "The plantation economy | West Indies | The Places Involved | Slavery Routes | Bristol and Transatlantic Slavery | PortCities Bristol". discoveringbristol.org.uk. Retrieved 2016-01-18.
  7. ↑ Karasch, Mary C. (1987). Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro 1808–1850. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 303. ISBN 978-0-691-07708-6.
  8. ↑ Talarico, Bruna. "Quilombo no Leblon foi o primeiro abolicionista no país". Palmares.
  9. ↑ Moore, Samuel (1854). Biography of Mahommah G. Baquaqua. Detroit.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  10. ↑ Shore, Edward (2017). "Geographies of Resistance: Quilombos, Afro-descendants, and the Struggle for Land and Environmental Justice in Brazil's Atlantic Forest". Afro - Hispanic Review. 36 (1): 58–78. ProQuest 2076933136.
  11. ↑ "Web Server's Default Page". novo.mgquilombo.com.br.
  12. ↑ RK Kent, Palmares: An African State in Brazil, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 172.
  13. ↑ RK Kent, Palmares: An African State in Brazil, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 172.
  14. ↑ Roger Bastide, The Other Quilombos, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 191-2.
  15. ↑ Stuart Schwartz, The Mocambo: Slave Resistance in Colonial Bahia, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 209-210.
  16. ↑ Stuart Schwartz, The Mocambo: Slave Resistance in Colonial Bahia, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 218-222.
  17. ↑ Roger Bastide, The Other Quilombos, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 193.
  18. ↑ Roger Bastide, The Other Quilombos, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 195.
  19. ↑ Kent (1965). "Palmares: An African State in Brazil". Journal of African History. 6 (2): 163. doi:10.1017/s0021853700005582. JSTOR 180194. S2CID 162914470.
  20. ↑ Braudel, Fernand, The Perspective of the World, vol. III of Civilization and Capitalism, 1984, p. 390.
  21. ↑ RK Kent, Palmares: An African State in Brazil, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 175.
  22. ↑ RK Kent, Palmares: An African State in Brazil, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 177-9.
  23. ↑ RK Kent, Palmares: An African State in Brazil, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 185.
  24. ↑ RK Kent, Palmares: An African State in Brazil, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 180.
  25. ↑ RK Kent, Palmares: An African State in Brazil, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 172.
  26. ↑ RK Kent, Palmares: An African State in Brazil, in "Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas", ed. by Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 186-7.
  27. ↑ "Tucuruí - Informações, Imagens e Vídeos". Amazônia (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  28. ↑ Galeano, Eduardo, 1940–2015 (30 April 2013). Children of the days : a calendar of human history. London. ISBN 978-1-56858-971-8. OCLC 895700030.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  29. 1 2 "Brasil de Fato". Brasil de Fato (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  30. ↑ "Quilombolas: quem são, origem, tradição, condições". Brasil Escola (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  31. ↑ Guimarães, José (2012). «Settlement in Southern Pará and Historical Origins of the Carajás Movement». Carajás Youth Debates (interview). Interview with Teixeira de Souza, M .. Teixeira de Souza, M. Belém.
  32. ↑ Moura, Clóvis. (2004). Dicionário da escravidão negra no Brasil. São Paulo, SP, Brasil: Edusp. p. 47. ISBN 85-314-0812-1. OCLC 62236622.
  33. 1 2 Lima e Silva, Raullyan Borja; Freitas, João da Luz; Moreira dos Santos, João Ubiratan; Picanço Souto, Raimundo Nonato (2013). "Caracterização agroecológica e socioeconômica dos moradores da comunidade quilombola do Curiaú" (PDF). Biota Amazônia (in Portuguese). Macapá. 3 (3): 113. doi:10.18561/2179-5746/biotaamazonia.v3n3p113-138. ISSN 2179-5746. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
  34. ↑ "Novos conselheiros da Area de Protecao Ambiental do Rio Curiau sao empossados" (in Portuguese). SEMA: Secretaria de Estado de Meio Ambiente (AP). 9 December 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
  35. ↑ "Livres anciens : Etat libre du Counani : Livre rouge n°3". Bibliotheque Numerique Caraibe Amazone Plateau des Guyanes (in French). 1906. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
  36. ↑ "Cabo Orange National Park - Brazil" (PDF). Ramsar.org. p. 10. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
  37. ↑ Quilombo at IMDb
  38. ↑ Brooke, James (1993-08-15). "Brazil Seeks to Return Ancestral Lands to Descendants of Runaway Slaves". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-12-06.
  39. ↑ Silva, Marcelo Gonçalves da (2017). A titulação das terras das comunidades tradicionais quilombolas no Brasil: análise da atuação do Estado (Thesis) (in Portuguese). São Paulo. doi:10.11606/T.8.2018.tde-09042018-155054.
  40. ↑ Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy, "quilombo", senses 1, 2 and 3, respectively.

Further reading

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