A Phoenician votive inscription on one of Cirta steles, near symbols of crescent, Tinnit, Caduceus and a spread right hand

Phoenician votive inscriptions or Punic votive inscriptions are votive inscriptions in the Phoenician and Punic religion, dedicated to a certain god or gods, mostly on stelae. The inscriptions have a standard formula, including the name of the god (or gods), the statement of the vow, the name of the vower and a closing statement. Most of the inscriptions were found in Carthage, and dedicated to Tinnit, Baʿal Ḥammon or both.[1]

The standard formula

A Phoenician votive inscription on a fragment of a stele with a crescent and a ship over waves

Most of the inscriptions are written in the exact same formula. This formula opens with the dedication to the god or gods (for example: LRBT LTNT PN BʿL WLʾDN LBʿL ḤMN = "To the lady - to Tinnit the face of Baal, and to the lord - to Baal Hammon").[2] After the dedication, the statement of the vow (ʾŠ NDR = "which devoted", "which vowed") and the name (and his/her ancestry, and sometimes the employment as well) appears (for example:[3] ʾŠ NDR MHRBʿL HSPR BN BDʿŠTRT BN MLKYTN BN ʾDRBʿL = "which Meherbaal the writer son of Bodastart son of Milkyathon son of Addirbaal devoted").[2] In quite a few cases the inscriptions end with a closing statement to the god/gods (K ŠMʿ QLʾ BRKʾ or K ŠMʿ QLʾ YBRKʾ = "for he/she/they (the go/gods) heard his/her (the vower) voice, may he/she/they bless him/her", or simply K ŠMʿ QLʾ BRKʾ = "for he/she/they heard his/her voice", and other close variations), but it is frequently absent.[2]

Exceptions

A stele in the shape of sign of Tinnit, bearing an inscription with ʾŠ NŠʾ ("which raised up")

Most of the inscriptions include a general dedication (the ʾŠ NDR part), but a minority of them include a certain specific vowed object(s): obelisks and masks,[4] copper altar,[5] wooden cart/carts/female calf,[6] et cetera. Some of the inscriptions describe the stele of the vowed object as a gift, mostly in the version ʾŠ YTN ("which gave", as opposed to ʾŠ NDR) or with MTNT ("gift"),[7][8][9][10][11][12][13] and some mix both the gift and the vow versions.[14] Some inscriptions are made in an extremely short formula, including only the vower's name and the word NDR (as a noun – "the vow of")[15] or MTNT ("the gift of").[16] The closing statement rarely appears as "for he/she/they heard the voice of his words".[17] There are also some exceptions in the order of the parts of the standard formula.[18] A few inscriptions warn a potential thief that Tinnit or Baal Hammon, to whom the stelae were dedicated, will punish him.[19]

Examples

An inscription written in a standard formula:[20]

[L]RBT LTNT PN BʿL WLʾD[N] [To] the lady, to Tinnit-face-of-Baal, and to the lor[d,]
LBʿL ḤMN ʾŠ NDR MHRBʿL to Baal Hammon, thus vowed Meherbaal
HSPR BN BDʿŠTRT BN MLK[Y] the writer, son of Bodastart, son of Milk[ya]-
TN BN ʾDRBʿL K ŠMʿ QLʾ BRKʾ -ton, for they heard his voice. May they bless him!

A Phoenician votive inscription written in Greek transliteration:[21]

ΛΑΔΟΥΝ ΛΥΒΑΛ ΑΜΟΥΝ ΟΥ To the lord, to Baal Hammon, and
ΛΥΡΥΒΑΘΩΝ ΘΙΝΙΘ ΦΑΝΕ ΒΑΛ to our lady, to Tinnit-face-of-Baal,
ΥΣ ΝΑΔΩΡ ΣΩΣΙΠΑΤΙΟΣ ΒΥΝ thus vowed Sosipatios, son of
ΖΟΠΥΡΟΣ ΣΑΜΩ ΚΟΥΛΩ ΒΑ Zopyros, (for) they heard his voice. May they bl-
ΡΑΧΩ

A second inscription, according to which the stele was erected as a gift, and not as a result of a vow, reads:[22]

LʾDN LBʿL ḤMN WRBTN TNT To the lord, to Baal Hammon, and our Lady, Tinnit-
PʿN[23] BʿL MTNT ʾŠ ṬNʾ -face-of-Baal, a gift which erected
YḤWʾLN BN ʿBDʾŠMN Yehawalon, son of Abdeshmun
K ŠMʿ QLʾ BRKʾ for they heard his voice. May they bless him!

Distribution

More than 3,000 votive inscriptions were found In Carthage itself.[1] Outside Carthage, Phoenician votive inscription were also found in Hadrumetum (Hadrumetum Punic inscriptions), Cirta (Cirta steles), Malta (Cippi of Melqart), San Nicolò Gerrei (Pauli Gerrei trilingual inscription), Sulci,[24] Karaly,[25] in Phoenicia proper, and in Hammon.[26] Inscriptions in similar formulas were found in Sidon,[27] near Tyre,[28] in Athens,[29] Rhodes,[30] Egypt,[31] Kition[32] and Idalion,[33] as well as unstandard versions in Carthage.[34] Outside Carthage, the vows to gods other than Tinnit and Baal Hammon.

Based on an inscription bearing the standard formula without the name of the vower,[35] as well as a Phoenician standard votive inscription with the name of the vower in Greek alphabet,[36] it is assumed that the stelae with the standard formula were manufactured in large quantities, and only when someone was to by a stele as a result of a vow he vowed, their name was added.[37]

Symbolism

Lilybaeum stele, showing a votive inscription, symbols of Tinnit and Baal Hammon, Caduceus, an incense burner, a Priest spreads his hand up, and a line of stelae on a stage, similar to the stelae found in Hazor

The stelae themselves were mostly artistic and stylized, and various decorations and religious symbols are engraved on them, often related to the content of the inscriptions. The most common symbols are Sign of Tinnit, a crescent with a disc, a hand or two spread up, and Caduceus.[38] The first sign, called "Sign of Tinnit", symbolizes according to most researchers the goddess Tinnit; her common epithet, PN BʿL appears as ΦΑΝΗΒΑΛΟΣ on a coin from Ashkelon near the symbol of Tinnit.[39] The second symbol, a crescent with a disc, is the symbol of Baʿal Ḥammon; it appears on stelae dedicated to both Tinnit and Baal Hammon or only to Baal Hammon, but does not appear on stelae dedicated only to Tinnit.[40] Moreover, the symbol appears on stelae from Samʼal, on which Baal Hammon is mentioned (like Kilamuwa stele).[41] The Caduceus might symbolize both gods in some sort of a joint cult, but it exact meaning remains unknown.[42]

The epithet PN BʿL ("the face of Baal") is reflected on Punic masks of faces from Carthage, featuring the symbol of Baal Hammon on them, literally the "face of Baal" – PN BʿL.[43] Some of the characteristics of this cult are tied to the Canaanite cult in Hazor, where (in its Orthostat temple) a stele, with a crescent with a disc and two hand spread ur towards them, was found.[44] In the courtyard of the temple's workshop, a clay mask with no beard or mustache was found, similar to the Punic masks.[45]

Lilybaeum stele, which was found near Motya – a Punic governmental centre in Sicily, bears a votive inscription, as well as symbols of Tinnit and Baal Hammon, Caduceus, an incense burner and a Priest spreads his right hand up, as well as a depiction of a line of stelae on a stage, similar to the stelae found in Hazor.[46]

Further reading

Notes

  1. 1 2 CIS I 185–3251
  2. 1 2 3 Davila, James R.; Zuckerman, Bruce (1993). "The Throne of ʿAshtart Inscription". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 289 (289): 67–80. doi:10.2307/1357365. ISSN 0003-097X. JSTOR 1357365. S2CID 165597675.
  3. ↑ CIS I 242
  4. ↑ CIS I 139: "נצבם וחנטם", see Slouschz, Nahoum (1942). Thesaurus of Phoenician Inscriptions (in Hebrew). Dvir. p. 133.
  5. ↑ CIS I 140, 143 (Pauli Gerrei trilingual inscription)
  6. ↑ CIS I 346: "עגלת עץ", see Slouschz, Nahoum (1942). Thesaurus of Phoenician Inscriptions (in Hebrew). Dvir. p. 295.
  7. ↑ In Phoenician (like in English), the words YTN ("gave") and MTNT ("gift") are of the same root.
  8. ↑ MTNT ʾŠ ṬNʾ – "a gift which erected" (KAI 102 = RÉS 1544, see Slouschz, Nahoum (1942). Thesaurus of Phoenician Inscriptions (in Hebrew). Dvir. p. 225.)
  9. ↑ CIS I 89 = KAI 39 (Idalion bilingual) and KAI 41 = RÉS 1212 (Menaḥem bilingual): ʾŠ YTN WYṬNʾ (which gave and erected), see also the Greek (in Cypriot syllabary) equivalents.
  10. ↑ KAI 282 = RÉS 930 (Abdmiskar cippus) – ʾŠ YTN, with a short closing statement YBRK
  11. ↑ An inscription on a bronze bowl from Elyakhin: "אש יתן אשמניתן ומגן ובעלפלס לאדננם לעשתרם" (Deutsch, R. (1994). Forty new ancient West Semitic inscriptions. Archaeological Center. pp. 69–73. ISBN 965-222-511-8.)
  12. ↑ Abdadoni inscription: "לאדני למלכעשתרת אל חמן כ[כ]רת חרץ שתם אש יתן עבדך//עבדאדני בן עבדאלנם ב[ן] עשתר[ר]תעזר בעל חמן כמ אמי//ל האלנם מלכעשתרת ומלאכ מלכעשתרת כ שמע קל יברך" (Krahmalkov, Charles (1971). "Notes on the Inscription of 'bd'dny from Umm el-'Amed". Rivista degli studi orientali. 46 (1/2): 33–37. ISSN 0392-4866. JSTOR 41880192.)
  13. ↑ CIS I 147 (ʾŠ YTN with the fool closing statemental)
  14. ↑ Slouschz, Nahoum (1942). Thesaurus of Phoenician Inscriptions (in Hebrew). Dvir. p. 170.: only MTNT ʾŠ NDR ʾDNBʿL ("a gift which vowed Adonibaal");
    Slouschz, Nahoum (1942). Thesaurus of Phoenician Inscriptions (in Hebrew). Dvir. p. 350.: YTN HMTNT Z ʾŠ N[DR] ("gave this gift, which vowed" – this version preseves the ʾŠ NDR mainly as a traditional element);
    RÉS 355: MTNT NDR ʾŠ NDR ("a vow-gift which vowed")
  15. ↑ CIS I 176, 2131, Slouschz, Nahoum (1942). Thesaurus of Phoenician Inscriptions (in Hebrew). Dvir. p. 287. (with only two words: NDR ḤTLT) and more.
  16. ↑ CIS I 192
  17. ↑ CIS I 3784, RÉS 234B
  18. ↑ CIS I 3778 = KAI 78 (Mitsri genealogy inscription), which opens with the closing statement.
  19. ↑ CIS I 3783–3785
  20. ↑ CIS I 242, see Slouschz, Nahoum (1942). Thesaurus of Phoenician Inscriptions (in Hebrew). Dvir. p. 297.
  21. ↑ KAI 175, see Gordon, Cyrus H. (1968). "Northwest Semitic Texts in Latin and Greek Letters". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 88 (2): 289. doi:10.2307/597203. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 597203.
  22. ↑ KAI 102 = RÉS 1544, see Slouschz, Nahoum (1942). Thesaurus of Phoenician Inscriptions (in Hebrew). Dvir. p. 225.
  23. ↑ The ʿayin functions as a mater lectionis; KAI read "pʿl", in which case it is a misspelling of "pn"/"pʿn" ("the face of").
  24. ↑ CIS I 147
  25. ↑ CIS I 138–139, 141
  26. ↑ CIS I 7–8, RÉS 504A+B
  27. ↑ KAI 282 = RÉS 930 (Abdmiskar cippus)
  28. ↑ Slouschz, Nahoum (1942). Thesaurus of Phoenician Inscriptions (in Hebrew). Dvir. p. 40.
  29. ↑ CIS I 118 (see Athenian Greek-Phoenician inscriptions)
  30. ↑ KAI 45 (Rhodes Phoenician-Greek bilingual inscriptions#Second inscription)
  31. ↑ RÉS 535
  32. ↑ CIS I 10
  33. ↑ CIS I 88–90, 93–94
  34. ↑ Slouschz, Nahoum (1942). Thesaurus of Phoenician Inscriptions (in Hebrew). Dvir. p. 170.
  35. ↑ RÉS 330
  36. ↑ CIS I 191
  37. ↑ Slouschz, Nahoum (1942). Thesaurus of Phoenician Inscriptions (in Hebrew). Dvir. p. 220.
  38. ↑ Yadin, Yigael (1967). "Symbols of Deities at Zinjirli, Carthage and Hazor". Yediot Bahaqirat Eretz-Israel Weatiqoteha (in Hebrew). 31 (1/4): 36. ISSN 2312-0061. JSTOR 23734250.
  39. ↑ Hill, George Francis (1914). Catalogue of the Greek coins of Palestine. London. p. LIX.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  40. ↑ Yadin, Yigael (1967). "Symbols of Deities at Zinjirli, Carthage and Hazor". Yediot Bahaqirat Eretz-Israel Weatiqoteha (in Hebrew). 31 (1/4): 53. ISSN 2312-0061. JSTOR 23734250.
  41. ↑ Yadin, Yigael (1967). "Symbols of Deities at Zinjirli, Carthage and Hazor". Yediot Bahaqirat Eretz-Israel Weatiqoteha (in Hebrew). 31 (1/4): 45. ISSN 2312-0061. JSTOR 23734250.
  42. ↑ Yadin, Yigael (1967). "Symbols of Deities at Zinjirli, Carthage and Hazor". Yediot Bahaqirat Eretz-Israel Weatiqoteha (in Hebrew). 31 (1/4): 55. ISSN 2312-0061. JSTOR 23734250.
  43. ↑ Yadin, Yigael (1967). "Symbols of Deities at Zinjirli, Carthage and Hazor". Yediot Bahaqirat Eretz-Israel Weatiqoteha (in Hebrew). 31 (1/4): 58–59. ISSN 2312-0061. JSTOR 23734250.
  44. ↑ Yadin, Yigael (1967). "Symbols of Deities at Zinjirli, Carthage and Hazor". Yediot Bahaqirat Eretz-Israel Weatiqoteha (in Hebrew). 31 (1/4): 60. ISSN 2312-0061. JSTOR 23734250.
  45. ↑ Yadin, Yigael (1967). "Symbols of Deities at Zinjirli, Carthage and Hazor". Yediot Bahaqirat Eretz-Israel Weatiqoteha (in Hebrew). 31 (1/4): 61–62. ISSN 2312-0061. JSTOR 23734250.
  46. ↑ Yadin, Yigael (1967). "Symbols of Deities at Zinjirli, Carthage and Hazor". Yediot Bahaqirat Eretz-Israel Weatiqoteha (in Hebrew). 31 (1/4): 62–63. ISSN 2312-0061. JSTOR 23734250.
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