Ogcodes
Ogcodes zonatus
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Acroceridae
Subfamily: Ogcodinae
Genus: Ogcodes
Latreille, 1796
Type species
Musca gibbosa
Synonyms[1]

Ogcodes is a cosmopolitan genus of small-headed flies in the family Acroceridae.[2] About 90 species have been described for the genus.[3][4] It is the most common and speciose genus in its family.[5] These flies are endoparasitoids of ground-dwelling entelegyne spiders.[2][5]

Characteristics

Flies in this genus can be distinguished from other genera in the family Acroceridae by the following combination of characteristics:

  • Antennae positioned on the ventral surface of the head, slightly above the mouth
  • Tibiae lacking apical spurs
  • Eyes always holoptic
  • Short, rod-like antennal flagellum
  • Mouthparts hidden by a membrane[6]
  • Reduced wing venation[7]

Adult Ogcodes are small to medium in size, with rounded heads and abdomens.[7] They are often brown or black in color, with a pale horizontal band at the posterior edge of each abdominal tergite.[8]

Life History

Soon after mating, females lay their eggs around dead twigs. These eggs are brown or black in color, and usually under 0.35 millimeters in length. Larvae are endoparasitoids in spiders. Upon emerging, planidial larvae wait to come in contact with a host spider. If a host is not found, the larvae can move to nearby sites by springing into the air or moving similarly to an inchworm. If a host is found, the larva will typically enter it through the abdomen, or occasionally through the intersegmental membranes of the legs. Upon attaching to the inside of the host, the larva will molt twice at a rate that depends on the developmental pace of the host.[2] The site of attachment is in an air pocket between the lamellae of the spider's book lungs.[5] The third-instar larva will consume most of the host spider’s internal contents, then emerge by making a hole along the host’s epigastric furrow.[2] Evidence that acrocerid flies deliberately influence host behavior is limited,[9] but flies in this genus have been observed emerging shortly after their hosts create webbing and clinging to the new webbing using adhesives on their bodies.[2] One to three days after emerging, the larva pupates. Adults can be encountered around dead twigs, or in grassy, wet areas. They have not been observed feeding, though it is possible that the oral membrane in place of functioning mouthparts may be used to collect moisture from the air. Adults are thought to live for three to four weeks at maximum in nature.[2]

Hosts

Larval Ogcodes have been documented developing in spiders from the following taxonomic families:[5]

Like many acrocerids, planidial Ogcodes tend to target hosts that wander or build webs on the ground.[2] Several species within the genus can develop in spiders from three or more different taxonomic families, namely O. adaptus, O. dispar, O. eugonatus, and O. pallidipennis.[5]

Distribution

Ogcodes as a whole is cosmopolitan in distribution. Species richness in Ogcodes is highest in Australia and the Nearctic and Palearctic regions. Species in this genus have not been collected from deserts and certain islands, such as Madagascar and Iceland. The majority of species are found in only one geographic region, with the exceptions of O. pallidipennis, O. dispar, and O. guttatus.[2] Alongside Pterodontia, Ogcodes is one of the two acrocerid genera present in every zoogeographic region.[6]

Taxonomy

Ogcodes is the only extant genus within the subfamily Ogcodinae.[7] Based on its morphology, the genus was previously placed within Acrocerinae.[6] While many species in Acrocerinae target haplogyne spiders, not a single species in Ogcodes does.[9] Despite sharing morphological characteristics with the acrocerid genus Pterodontia, such as having antennae located on the ventral surface of the head and reduced mouthparts, molecular data indicates that these two genera are not particularly closely related.[7][10]

Subgenera and species

The genus is split into three subgenera: Ogcodes, Protogcodes and Neogcodes. Ogcodes is cosmopolitan in distribution, Protogcodes is endemic to Australia, and Neogcodes is restricted to the Nearctic.[2]

Subgenus Ogcodes Latreille, 1796

Subgenus Protogcodes Schlinger, 1960[2]

Subgenus Neogcodes Schlinger, 1960[2]

The following species are synonyms:

  • Ogcodes darwinii Westwood, 1876:[18] synonym of Ogcodes basalis (Walker, 1852)
  • Ogcodes fumatus Froggatt, 1907 (preoccupied by O. fumatus Erichson, 1846): renamed to Ogcodes froggatti Schlinger in Schlinger & Jeffries, 1989[19]
  • Ogcodes limbatus Bigot, 1888 (preoccupied by Henops limbatus Meigen, 1822, now Ogcodes pallipes Latreille in Olivier, 1812): renamed to Ogcodes bigoti Nartshuk, 1982

References

  1. 1 2 González, Christian R.; Elgueta, Mario; Ramirez, Francisco (2018). "A catalog of Acroceridae (Diptera) from Chile". Zootaxa. 4374 (3): 427–440. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4374.3.6. PMID 29689809.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Schlinger, Evert I. (1960). "A Revision of the Genus Ogcodes Latreille with Particular Reference to Species of the Western Hemisphere" (PDF). Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 111 (3429): 227–336. doi:10.5479/si.00963801.111-3429.227. hdl:10088/16690.
  3. ↑ Gillung, Jessica P.; Winterton, Shaun L. (2017). "A review of fossil spider flies (Diptera: Acroceridae) with descriptions of new genera and species from Baltic Amber". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 16 (4): 325–350. doi:10.1080/14772019.2017.1289566.
  4. ↑ Stubbs, A.; Drake, M. (2014). British Soldierflies and their Allies (2 ed.). Wokingham: British Entomological and Natural History Society. p. 528. ISBN 9781899935079.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Schlinger, Evert I. (1987). The Biology of Acroceridae (Diptera): True Endoparasitoids of Spiders. Ecophysiology of Spiders: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 319–327. ISBN 978-3-642-71552-5. Retrieved 6 November 2023.
  6. 1 2 3 Schlinger, Evert I. (1981). Acroceridae. Manual of Nearctic Diptera: Agriculture Canada Research Branch, Ottawa. pp. 575–588.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Gillung, Jessica P.; Winterton, Shaun L. (21 March 2019). "Evolution of fossil and living spider flies based on morphological and molecular data (Diptera, Acroceridae)". Systematic Entomology. 44 (4): 820–841. doi:10.1111/syen.12358. Retrieved 6 November 2023.
  8. ↑ "Genus Ogcodes". bugguide.net. Iowa State University. Retrieved 11 November 2023.
  9. 1 2 Gillung, Jessica P.; Borkent, Christopher J. (2017). "Death comes on two wings: a review of dipteran natural enemies of arachnids". The Journal of Arachnology. 45 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1636/JoA-S-16-085.1. Retrieved 6 November 2023.
  10. ↑ Gillung, Jessica P.; Winterton, Shaun L.; Bayless, Keith M.; Khouri, Ziad; Borowiec, Marek L.; Yeates, David; Kimsey, Lynn S.; Misof, Bernhard; Shin, Seunggwan; Zhou, Xin; Mayer, Cristoph; Petersen, Malte; Wiegmann, Brian M. (2018). "Anchored phylogenomics unravels the evolution of spider flies (Diptera, Acroceridae) and reveals discordance between nucleotides and amino acids". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 128: 233–245. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2018.08.007.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Paramonov, S. J. (1957). "A review of Australian Acroceridae (Diptera)". Australian Journal of Zoology. 5 (4): 521–546. doi:10.1071/ZO9570521.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Schlinger, Evert I. (1971). "Description of six new species of Ogcodes from Borneo, Java, New Guinea, Taiwan and the Philippines (Diptera: Acroceridae)" (PDF). Pacific Insects. 14 (1): 93–100.
  13. 1 2 3 Cole, F. R. (1919). "The Dipterous Family Cyrtidae in North America". Transactions of the American Entomological Society. 45 (1): 1–79. JSTOR 25077002.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Brunetti, E. (1926). "New and little-known Cyrtidæ (Diptera)". Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 9. 18 (107): 561–606. doi:10.1080/00222932608633552.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Sabrosky, C.W. (1948). "A Further Contribution to the Classification of the North American Spider Parasites of the Family Acroceratidae (Diptera)". The American Midland Naturalist. 39 (2): 382–430. doi:10.2307/2421592. JSTOR 2421592.
  16. ↑ Barraclough, D. A.; Croucamp, W. (1997). "A new South African species of Ogcodes Latreille (Diptera: Acroceridae) reared from sac spider of the genus Cheiracanthium Koch (Miturgidae)" (PDF). Annals of the Natal Museum. 38 (1): 55–60. hdl:10520/AJA03040798_164.
  17. ↑ Grimaldi, David A. (1995). "A remarkable new species of Ogcodes (Diptera, Acroceridae) in Dominican amber" (PDF). American Museum Novitates (3127). hdl:2246/3572.
  18. 1 2 3 4 Westwood, J. O. (1876). "Notae Dipterologicae. No. 3.— Descriptions of new genera and species of the family Acroceridae". Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. 1876: 507–518.
  19. 1 2 Evenhuis, N.L. (13 April 2016). "Family ACROCERIDAE". In Evenhuis, N.L. (ed.). Catalog of the Diptera of the Australasian and Oceanian Regions. (online version). Retrieved 18 March 2018.
  20. ↑ Barahona-Segovia, Rodrigo M.; Guzmán, Vicente Valdés; Barceló, Matías; Pañinao-Monsálvez, Laura (2020). "A new spider fly (Diptera: Acroceridae: Ogcodinae: Ogcodes Latreille) from Chiloé Island's evergreen forest and new distributional records for other spider flies in Chile". Zootaxa. 4779 (1): 51–64. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4779.1.3.
  21. 1 2 3 Chvála, M. (1980). "Two new European Ogcodes species (Diptera, Acroceridae)". Acta Entomologica Bohemoslovaca. 77: 131–137.
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