Background

After political instability in Peru and a coup d'état in 1835, a civil war broke out between newly self-declared president Felipe Santiago Salaverry and constitutional president Luis José de Orbegoso, who allowed Bolivian president Andrés de Santa Cruz to send his troops through the Peruvian border.^[2] After the latter's triumph in 1836, assemblies were soon established to make way for the creation of the Confederation, an idea that had been floating around since the era of independence.

Establishment

A constituent assemby known as the Huaura Assembly was held from August 3 to 24, 1836, and featured representatives from La Libertad, Lima, Huaylas, Maynas and Junín.^[3] On August 11, North Peru was officially established through the promulgation of its constitution by the then President Orbegoso, naming Santa Cruz—who triumphantly entered Lima on August 15—as the Supreme Protector of the state. Orbegoso also presented his resignation, but it was not approved by the assembly, who named him provisional president. The assembly also established the new territorial divisions of the country.^[4] Unlike its new southern neighbour, North Peru maintained the national symbols of its predecessor.^[5]

Provided, then, with all the legal elements granted by the assemblies of the three states, Santa Cruz decreed the establishment of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, by decree given in Lima on October 28, 1836.^[6][7] A congress known today as the Congress of Tacna was ordered to meet in Tacna to establish the foundations of the confederation. The Pact of Tacna was signed without debate during the congress. It established the legal framework through which the state would operate, and also included the design of the Confederation's flag.^[8] Reactions to the pact were mixed event among its signatories, and disagreements led to the establishment of one constituent congress per member state.^[9] The act was later promulgated in 1837.

Development and dissolution

The Confederation generated resistance among several groups in both countries, which resented the dilution of national identities, and also among neighbouring countries. An important number of Peruvian politicians who opposed the Confederation, such as Agustín Gamarra and Ramón Castilla, fled to Chile where they received support, leading to the War of the Confederation.^[3][10]

After a trade war, the Congress of Chile approved the declaration of war on December 26, 1836,^[11] claiming that Santa Cruz's rule over Peru was illegitimate, and that his influence threatened the integrity of other South American nations, as seen by Orbegoso's support for an attempted invasion of Chile by Ramón Freire, specifically pointing out that it targeted then minister Diego Portales.^[12] Argentina followed suit after Juan Manuel de Rosas then declared war on the Confederation on May 19, 1837, after the escalation of a territorial conflict in its border,^[13] accusing Santa Cruz of harboring supporters of the Unitarian Party. The accusations ended up being true, as Santa Cruz had financially supported the émigrés.^[14]

South Peru was invaded from October to November, with the occupants being surrounded and forced to sign the a treaty, leaving the country shortly after.^[11][15] The treaty was declared null and void by Chile,^[16] and a second expedition headed by Manuel Bulnes was organized,^[17] which left for Peru on July 19, 1838.^[11] Around the same time, North Peru seceded from the Confederation on July 30,^[18] but was nevertheless attacked and defeated by the second expedition in the Battle of Portada de Guías of August 21.^[19][20]

During this time, the Confederation's stability collapsed, as by September, Peru (i.e. North and South Peru) was under the de jure control of seven different presidents at one time, of which six claimed control over North Peru (with the exception of Pío de Tristán in South Peru): Santa Cruz, who was the Supreme Protector; Gamara, the restorationist president; Orbegoso, leader of the secessionist North Peruvian state; José de la Riva Agüero, who replaced Orbegoso, being appointed by Santa Cruz; Domingo Nieto, in the north; and Juan Francisco de Vidal in Huaylas.^[21]

Santa Cruz occupied Lima on November 10, ending the siege in Callao, but left for the north, where the restaurateurs were located. He was defeated in the Battle of Yungay on January 20, 1839, and thus, the Confederation was dissolved,^[19] with Gamarra announcing its dissolution on August 25.^[22] The Confederate defeat led to the exile of Santa Cruz, first to Guayaquil, in Ecuador, then to Chile, and finally to Europe, where he died.