| Mekeo | |
|---|---|
| Native to | Papua New Guinea |
| Region | Central Province |
Native speakers | 20,000 (2015)[1] |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | mek |
| Glottolog | meke1243 |
  Mekeo | |
| Coordinates: 8°14′S 146°35′E / 8.24°S 146.59°E | |
Mekeo is a language spoken in Papua New Guinea and had 19,000 speakers in 2003. It is an Oceanic language of the Papuan Tip Linkage.[2] The two major villages that the language is spoken in are located in the Central Province of Papua New Guinea. These are named Ongofoina and Inauaisa.[3] The language is also broken up into four dialects: East Mekeo; North West Mekeo; West Mekeo and North Mekeo. The standard dialect is East Mekeo.[4] This main dialect is addressed throughout the article. In addition, there are at least two Mekeo-based pidgins.
Phonology
Mekeo employs a relatively simple system of phonology which consists of ten consonants and five vowels. The following tables identify both the consonants and vowels present in Mekeo.
Consonants
| Labial | Alveolar | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |
| Plosive | p | t | k | ʔ |
| Fricative | f | s | ||
| Lateral | l |
Note that the table above displays the range of consonants used in East Mekeo which is classified as the standard dialect. North West Mekeo, West Mekeo and North Mekeo each have slightly different consonants included in their dialects.[5]: 559 [4]: 9
Vowels
Mekeo has five vowels, shown on the table below:
| Front, unrounded | Central, unrounded | Back, rounded | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | u | |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Open | a |
Morphology
Pronouns and person markers
In Mekeo, personal pronouns primarily refer to humans; however, the third-person forms can also be used for animals and other objects as well. Mekeo uses a range of different pronouns for different situations. The following table shows all the main personal pronouns for East Mekeo. This includes unmarked, emphatic and reflexive personal pronouns. Note that the emphatic pronouns are not common in East Mekeo as they compete with another more common topicaliser, au-ŋa. For example, the preferred form for the first person singular would be lau- au-ŋa.[5]: 148 In the following table, 1, 2 and 3 indicate the person, SG and PL indicate whether the example is singular or plural and I and E stand for inclusive and exclusive.
| Unmarked | Emphatic | Reflexive | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | lau | lau-ŋa | ʔifo-u |
| 2SG | oi | oi-ŋa | ʔifo-mu/ʔifō |
| 3SG | isa | isa-ŋa | ʔifo-ŋa/ʔifo-ŋa-mo |
| 1PL.I | iʔa/isa | iʔ-ŋa/isa-ŋa | ʔifo-ʔa |
| 1PL.E | lai | lai-ŋa | ʔifo-mai |
| 2PL | oi | oi-ŋa | ʔifo-mi |
| 3PL | isa | isa-ŋa | ʔifo-i/ʔifo-ʔi |
Examples
The following examples demonstrate the use of some of the above personal pronouns in context.[5]: 149, 155
E-ʔifo
3SG-self
(East Mekeo)
'S/he is one of a kind.'
Maa-mu
Eye-2SG
umu
charcoal
koà
likeness
lopia-ŋa
beautiful
(East Mekeo)
'Your eyes are beautiful, like charcoal.'
Oi,
2SG
nao
European
koa,
likeness
ioi-mu
same-2SG
(East Mekeo)
'You are like a European.'
ia
elsewhere
e-lao
3SG-go
afu
place
ioi-na
different-3SG
e-lao
3SG-go
(East Mekeo)
'He has gone elsewhere.'
Grammar
Possessive constructions
Possession in Mekeo has two morpho-syntactic distinctions: direct or indirect constructions. Direct possession concerns kinship relations and 'part of a whole relations' and these kind of relations are cultural in origin. Indirect possession covers a more general possession of alienable property.
Direct possession
Direct possession relies on relational terms that often form closed subsystems such as kinship terms. In Mekeo, the two relation terms involved in each equation are joined by another term that operates like a transitive verb. The third term is the 'relator' and must be marked for agreement with one of the other terms in the equation. The relator follows the subject and/or the object. The relator is marked for the person and number of the second term or the object.[5]: 195
Indirect possession
Expressing alienable possession in Mekeo requires the prefix E- and its various realisations (including zero). This morpheme is then optionally preceded by a free or bound pronoun and then the compulsory suffixed by a pronominal suffix which indicates the person and number of the possessor.[5]: 208-210
The negative is expressed with negators maini, aibaia and laa'i:
The following is an example of an alternation of the cliticisation process:
Another morpheme to express possession is the location pronoun KE- (realised as ke or ʔe). This pronoun expresses location or place:
Negation
Mekeo expresses negation in three ways:[5]: 219, 234
- through the negative particle aʼi, which negates nominal predicates;
- through existential negators, which differ between dialects; and
- through a negative verb prefix, which negates verbal predicates.
This three-way functional distinction between different types of negation is typical of Oceanic languages.[6]: 17
Nominal Negation
Nominal predicates (which consist of one or more nominals) are negated in two ways — through either the negative particle or proclitic aʼi, or through existential negator particles.
The negative particle aʼi is found in all dialects of Mekeo, with ⟨ʼ⟩ pronounced as either a weak glottal stop or slight pause most dialects, or even not at all (/ai/) in East Mekeo.[5]: 175 [note 1] Aʼi negates a nominal predicate as seen in examples 10 and 11:
Aʼi also occurs as a proclitic particle before nominals, as seen in examples 12 and 13. In this case is functions similar to the English prefixes 'non-' or 'un-'.[5]: 175
E-mu
POSS-2SG
ŋope
fast
a'i-fou-ŋa
NEG-public-3SG
ŋa-mia
IMP.3SG-become
(East Mekeo)
'Don't let your fast be public knowledge.'[5]: 175
All four dialects of Mekeo have existential negators: maini in North-West Mekeo, aibaia or aibaida in West Mekeo, aibaia or aibaiza in North Mekeo, and laaʼi in East Mekeo. The existential negators are sentence-final predicates — where a verb would otherwise be — and express denial of the existence, presence or identity of the preceding nominal predicate.[note 2] Examples 14 to 17 show the existential negator of each dialect.[5]: 175,220
In both West Mekeo and Northern Mekeo, aibaia can be analyzed as a compound of a'i 'not' and baia 'mere'. These two dialects also have an intrusive consonant, so aibaia is often realised as /aibaida/ in West Mekeo and /aibaiza/ in North Mekeo.[5]: 175
The existential negators can also function similarly to aʼi, so examples 14 and 16 above could alternatively be read as 'She is not his wife' (or 'He is not her husband') and 'This is not sugar' respectively.[5]: 176
Verbal negation
Verbal predicates (which consist of a verb word[note 3] and its arguments) in Mekeo are negated by a negator prefix attached to the predicate's verb word. Within the verb word, the negator prefix is found between tense-aspect-mood prefixes and the subject marker, with an intrusive consonant before the subject marker in some dialects. This negator prefix negates the entire verbal predicate.[5]: 225-226,234-235 The position of the negator prefix between the tense-aspect-mood prefixes and the verb base is generally common in Oceanic languages.[7]: 51
Example 18 shows the position of the negator prefix in the North Mekeo expression Fázobálifúa! 'Don't spill it!':
F-
OBLG-
ai-
NEG-
z-
B-
o-
2SG-
ba-
CA-
lifu
wrong
-Ø-
TH
-Ø-
-PF
-a
-3SG
(North Mekeo)
'Don't spill it!'[5]: 226
Examples 19 to 22 show the negator prefix in all four Mekeo dialects. Jones tentatively reconstructs the negator prefix in Proto-Mekeo as */aʔi/, cognate with Motu asi and both descended from Proto-Central-Papuan */ati/.[5]: 234, 235
In North-West Mekeo, the existential negator maini (see example 14) also occurs before some verbs to negate them in either the past tense or in the prohibitive mood.[5]: 175 This occurs in addition ae-, creating a double negative, as seen in example 23. Jones suggests that this may be to reduce ambiguity where the prefix ae- has otherwise assimilated with the verb stem; other dialects have an intrusive consonant between the negator prefix and verb stem, as shown in example 24 from West Mekeo.[5]: 574, 578
Demonstratives and spatial deictics
List of abbreviations used for examples in this section
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
|---|---|
| ASS | Assertion/Predication Marker |
| B | Buffer Consonant |
| CNT | Continuative Aspect Marker |
| DX | Deictic Particle |
| PF | Perfect-Perfective Aspect |
| OBL | Oblique Function |
| SG | Singular |
Demonstrative sentence structure
According to World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) writer Matthew S. Dryer, Mekeo is a mixed language type, meaning it does not follow a demonstrative-noun, or noun-demonstrative sentence structure, but has both.[8]
Mekeo is spoken in the central province of Papua New Guinea. Kaki Ae is a neighbouring language of Mekeo. It is spoken to the north-east of where Mekeo is spoken. Kaki Ae has a demonstrative-noun sentence structure. Clifton describes Kaki Ae's noun phrase structure as Demonstrative-Place-Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Limiter, where the demonstrative precedes the noun, which is in accordance with the data on WALS.[9]
According to Maino, Aufo and Bullock, Mekeo follows the following noun phrase structure: Demonstrative-Possessive/Noun/Adjective-Numeral/Quantifier.[10]: 18
Proximal demonstratives in the four dialects of Mekeo
According to Jones, in Mekeo, there are three "degrees of proximity… represented in three of the four dialects".[5]: 156 These four dialects are NWMek (North West Mekeo), WMek (West Mekeo), NMek (North Mekeo) and EMek (East Mekeo).
| Location | NWMek | WMek | NMek | EMek |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Here | i-ke | Namo | Namo | i-na |
| There | e-ke | Na-ba/e-ŋa | E-ŋa | e-ŋa |
| Yonder | u-ke | e-ŋa-ke-ŋa-ina | e-ŋa-ke-ŋa-i-na | e-ŋa-ʔe-ŋa-i-na |
[5]: 158
According to Maino, Aufu and Bullock, there are two demonstratives egaina and inaina/l’ina. "These can refer to singular or plural, near or far", and is represented in the Tentative Grammar Description with the following table.[10]: 20
| inaia | This, these |
|---|---|
| I’ina | This, those |
| Ega’ina | That, those |
These can be represented through the following examples, provided by Jones.
Ike auke NWMek
Inaia auke-ŋa WMek
Naimo auke-ŋa WMek
Inaina amuʔe-ŋa EMek
this dog-3SG.ASS
'This (is a) dog.'[5]: 213
This noun phrase can be expanded by adding a suffix that marks the person and number of the deictic pronoun.
Amuʔe
Dog-3SG
eʔle,
small
la-isa
1SG-see
(East Mekeo)
'The small dog, I saw it'
Inaina has been dropped as the this has been changed to the, and eʔle ('small') has been added.
There can also be a second modifier, attached before the adjective:
Eŋaina
that
amuʔe-ŋa
dog-3SG
eʔele-ŋa,
small-3SG
la-isa
1SG-see
(East Mekeo)
'That dog, the small one, I saw it'
[5]: 76
The demonstrative 'that' (Eŋaina is evident here, along with the third-person singular noun dog and adjective. The second modifier -ŋa has been attached to eʔele ('small').
Deictic particles
There also exists deictic particles (DX) in Mekeo, illustrated in the West Mekeo example below:
Anaphoric and exophoric use of demonstratives
Mekeo uses both anaphoric and exophoric use of demonstratives, and clear anaphors are rare in Mekeo.[5]: 531 Anaphoric strategies are not always effective in their identification according to Jones. Jones utilises the phrase "deictic reinforcement" for Mekeos use of personal pronouns or demonstrative pronouns to refer back to what has just been mentioned.[5]: 532 Demonstrative pronouns are used for four reasons: to announce a new topic, to return to a previously mentioned topic, to announce a new topic specifically so as to not confuse with already established topics, and to "emphasise the presumed accessibility of a referent to the hearer".[5]: 533
An example of anaphoric demonstrative is shown in East Mekeo:
Eŋa’ina
That
amuʔe!
dog-3SG
(East Mekeo)
'That is a dog!'
According to Jones, the comma represents the "actual or potential pause" within the sentence.[5]: 49
Exophoric use of demonstratives
An example of exophoric use of demonstratives is highlighted by Jones:
ini,
bird
bani-na
wing-3SG
(West Mekeo)
'As for the bird, its wing!'
According to Jones, this sentence "translates to 'As for the bird, its wing!', that is as for the bird, it is its wing that is here important/salient/relevant".
Jones points out that there is an "implicit deictic argument it/that". For exophoric topics, when kin terms are used the topic is always a personal pronoun.[5]: 123
Isa,
he
lau
I
ama-u
father-1SG
(East Mekeo)
'He is my father OR he/him, my father'
The personal pronoun isa is used.[5]: 123
Deictic predicates
Deictic predicates occur when the reference is not given. For example, the following response would be given to the question "Which dog do you mean?" [5]: 212
Amuʔe
dog
eŋaʔi-na
that-3SG
(East Mekeo)
'That's the dog (The dog is the one)'
The demonstrative eŋaʔi-na is used in the example above.
There is variation among the four dialects:
Ike
Inaia
Namo
Inaina
this
auke
auke-ŋa
auke-ŋa
amuʔe-ŋa
dog-3SG.ASS
(NWMek)
(WMek)
(WMek)
(EMek)
'This (is a) dog.'[5]: 213
Papie
woman
aŋa’o
one
la-isa
1SG-see
au-ŋa
one-3SG
fe’a
basket
e-pua-i-s-a
3SG-carry-PF-B-3SG
(East Mekeo)
'I saw a woman (who was) carrying a basket'
The placement of commas in important in the Mekeo language. Jones highlights that if a comma had been placed after Papie aŋa’o, then the translation would shift to "a woman who was carrying a basket".[5]: 509
Trade language
| Imunga Trade Language | |
|---|---|
Native speakers | None |
Mekeo-based pidgin | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | None (mis) |
| Glottolog | imun1234 |
| Ioi Trade Jargon | |
|---|---|
Native speakers | None |
Mekeo-based pidgin | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | None (mis) |
| Glottolog | ioit1234 |
Jones (1996) reports two forms of pidgin Mekeo used for trade: the Imunga Trade Language and the Ioi Trade Jargon.[11]
Notes
- ↑ Jones (1998) only attempts a rough phonemic transcription of this particle, but does record this variation between dialects.
- ↑ See Mosel (1999) for an explanation of the interpretation of the term 'denial' in this context.
- ↑ Jones (1998) notes that while a Mekeo verb and its various affixes have traditionally been referred to as a 'verb phrase', this construction is more accurately called a "verb word".
External links
References
- ↑ Mekeo at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
- ↑ Lewis 2009
- ↑ Organised Phonology Data: Mekeo Language. (2004). SIL International, 1-3.
- 1 2 Chung, Je-Soon (1995). "Orthography paper for Mekeo language in Central Province of Papua New Guinea" (PDF). SIL International.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 Jones, Alan A. (1998). Towards a lexicogrammar of Mekeo (an Austronesian language of Western Central Papua). Pacific Linguistics. Vol. Series C-138. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. doi:10.15144/PL-C138. hdl:1885/146186. ISBN 0-85883-472-3.
- ↑ Mosel, Ulrike (1999). "Towards a typology of negation in Oceanic languages". In Hovdhaugen, Even; Mosel, Ulrike (eds.). Negation in Oceanic Languages: typological studies. LINCOM studies in Austronesian linguistics. Vol. 2. München: LINCOM EUROPA. pp. 1–19. ISBN 3-89586-602-4.
- ↑ Crowley, Terry; Lynch, John; Ross, Malcolm (2001-12-21). The Oceanic Languages. Routledge Language Family Series. Routledge. ISBN 9781136749858.
- ↑ Dryer, Matthew S (2013). "Order of Demonstrative and Noun". World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- ↑ Clifton, John M. (1997). The Kaki Ae Language. Pacific Linguistics. p. 30.
- 1 2 Aufo, Rose; Maino, Rock; Bullock, Juliann (2015). Tentative Grammar Description for the Mekeo Language. Papua New Guinea: SIL.
- ↑ Jones, Alan A. (1996). "Privately owned Mekeo-based trade languages". In Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Tryon, Darrell T. (eds.). Atlas of languages of intercultural communication in the Pacific, Asia and the Americas. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 219–224. ISBN 3110134179.
Further reading
- Amala, Arthur; Magaiva, Alphonse; Deelen, Leanie van (2015). Tentative Grammar Description for the Mekeo Language. Papua New Guinea: SIL.
