The relationship between Islam and music has long been a complex and controversial matter.[1][2][3][4][5] Many Muslims believe that the Qur'an and Sunnah prohibit music (instruments and singing);[6][7] however, other Muslims disagree and believe that some forms of music are permitted.[2][8][9] Despite this controversy, music has been popular and flourished at various times and places in the Islamic world, often in palaces and private homes to avoid censorship.[10]

In many parts of the Muslim world devotional/religious music and secular music is well developed and popular. In recent decades, "the advent of a whole new generation of Muslim musicians who try to blend their work and faith", has given the issue "extra significance".[11]

Historically, Islamic art and music flourished during the Islamic Golden Age.[12][13][14] Islamic music is also credited with influencing European and Western music; for example, French musicologist Baron Rodolphe d'Erlanger in his assessment of the Abbasid Caliphate in Islamic history credits Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Farabi's Kitabu l'musiqi al-kabir ("The Great Book of Music") with this influence.[15]

Overview

Strictly speaking, the words 'Islamic religious music' present a contradiction in terms. The practice of orthodox Sunni and Shi'a Islam does not involve any activity recognized within Muslim cultures as 'music'. The melodious recitation of the Holy Qur'an and the call to prayer are central to Islam, but generic terms for music have never been applied to them. Instead, specialist designations have been used. However, a wide variety of religious and spiritual genres that use musical instruments exists, usually performed at various public and private assemblies outside the orthodox sphere.

— Eckhard Neubauer, Veronica Doubleday, Islamic religious music, New Grove Dictionary of Music online[16]

Music and interpretations of Islamic law

The question of whether music is permitted or forbidden in Islam is a matter of debate among scholars.[11] The Qur'an does not specifically refer to music itself. Some scholars, however, have interpreted the phrase "idle talk", which is discouraged, as including music.[11]

Music appears in several hadith in an unfavorable way, with one example being: "Singing sprouts hypocrisy in the heart as rain sprouts plants." But there is disagreement over the reliability of these narrations.[11] Another hadith reads: "There will be among my Ummah people who will regard as permissible adultery, silk, alcohol and musical instruments."[17] But again, the reliability of this hadith has also been questioned, most notably by Ibn Hazm al-Dhahiri.[18]

One scholar, Jacob M. Landau, discerns "four main groups" in the dispute over whether music is haram:

  1. Uncompromising purists opposed to any musical expression;[19]
  2. Religious authorities admitting only the cantillation of the Qur'an and the call to prayer, or adhan;[19]
  3. Scholars and musicians favoring music, believing there to be no musical difference between secular and religious music;[19] and
  4. Important mystical fraternities, for whom music and dance were a means toward unity with God.[19]

Among the groups that believe the Quran and Islamic tradition "strictly" prohibit music are the Salafi,[20] Wahhabi, and Deobandi denominations.[11]

In his survey of Islamic scholarship of "enjoined what was good and forbade what was bad" in accordance to Islamic law, historian Michael Cook found that

"Attacks on offending objects are a ubiquitous theme ... There are, for example, chess-boards to be overturned, supposedly sacred trees to be cut down and decorative images to destroy or deface ... But the targets that are mentioned again and again are liquor and musical instruments. (An exception was sometimes made for tambourines which were used to announce marriages)."[21]

Prohibitions of music are rare or non-existent in majority-Muslim states since the coming to power of Muhammad bin Salman in Saudi Arabia, but have often been enforced where Islamist insurgents have gained power – in Afghanistan under Taliban rule;[22] and at least as of January 2013, "across much of the two-thirds of Mali ... controlled by Islamic rebel groups".[23]

Varieties of opinion

There is a fairly wide difference of opinion over what exceptions can be made to the prohibition on music. Examples of what is allowed include: vocals but not instruments; vocals but only if the audience is of the same gender; vocals and drums, or vocals and traditional one sided drum and tambourine, but no other instruments; any kind of music provided it is not passionate, sexually suggestive, or has lyrics in violation of Islamic principles.

  • Some Muslims believe musical instruments are haram and only vocals are allowed, but the performer must be of the same gender as the audience.[24]
  • Acapella music (whatever the audience) has led to a rich tradition of devotional singing in Islam.[11] In support of singing being halal, the jurist Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi says, "No sound hadith is available concerning the prohibition of singing", while Ibn Hazm says, "All that is reported on this subject is false and fabricated."[25]
  • There are some Muslims who believe drums are permissible, but no other instruments.[11]
  • Zakir Naik, maintains musical instruments are haram except for two—the daf (a traditional one sided drum) and tambourine, which are also mentioned in Hadith.[26]
    • An exception in the prohibition of music can be made for women playing the Daf, at celebrations and festivals, according to a minority group of Sunni Islam and another a group of Shiites.[27] This exception comes from a well-known hadith in which two small girls were singing to a woman, and the Islamic Prophet Muhammad instructed Abu Bakr to let them continue, stating, "Leave them Abu Bakr, for every nation has an Eid (i.e. festival) and this day is our Eid."[28]
  • Still other Muslims believe that all instruments are allowed, provided they are used for acceptable or halal types of music and are not sexually arousing or un-Islamic.[25] Hence there is a long history of instrumental accompaniments to devotional songs, particularly in the Shia and Sufi traditions.[11] Many Sufi orders use music as part of their worship, most notably in Qawwali performances.[29]
  • According to the Irish Times, "a majority of Muslims" follow the view taken by modern scholars such as Yusuf al-Qaradawi that music is forbidden "only if it leads the believer into activities that are clearly defined as prohibited, such as drinking alcohol and illicit sex".[11]

Imam al-Ghazali, reported several hadith and came to the conclusion that music in and of itself is permitted, saying: "All these Ahadith are reported by al-Bukhari and singing and playing are not haram." He also references a narration from Khidr, wherein a favorable opinion of music is expressed.[30][24]

According to Hussein Rashid, "contemporary scholars including Shaykh al-Azhar Mahmud Shaltut, Shaykh Yusuf Qaradawi, and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini have all issued legal rulings that audio arts [including music] that do not encourage people to go against the faith are permitted."[31] Notable people who are regarded as having believed music is halal include Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi, Ibn al-Qaisarani, Ibn Sina, Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, Rumi, Ibn Rushd, and Ibn Hazm.

Yusuf al-Qaradawi in his book "The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam", states songs/singing is not haram unless:

  1. the subject matter of songs is "against the teachings of Islam", such as praising wine;
  2. the "manner" of singing is haram, such as "being accompanied by suggestive sexual movement";
  3. it leads to "excessive involvement with entertainment", such as wasting time that ought to be spent on religion;
  4. if it "arouses one's passions, leads him towards sin, excites the animal instincts, and dulls spirituality";
  5. if it is done "in conjunction with haram activities – for example, at a drinking party".[25]

Shia interpretation and Iran

Based upon the ahadith, numerous Iranian Grand Ayatollahs; Sadiq Hussaini Shirazi, Mohammad-Reza Golpaygani, Lotfollah Safi Golpaygani, Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi, Ahmad Jannati and others, ruled that all music and instrument playing is haram, no matter the purpose.[32][33][34] Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini held similar religious position, stating on 23 July 1979: "If you want independence for your country, you must suppress music and not fear to be called old‐fashioned. Music is a betrayal of the nation and of youth."[35] During the Iranian Revolution, Khomeini said: "...music is like a drug, whoever acquires the habit can no longer devote himself to important activities. We must completely eliminate it."[36] From 1979 to 1989, all the music on radio and television was banned except occasional "revolutionary songs" that were performed in a strong martial style.[37] After Khomeini's death, reformist Rafsanjani and Khatami administrations gradually lifted the ban on music. The current supreme leader of Iran, Ali Khamenei, in 2014 has stated his admiration of Western music,[38] and nowadays music is officially permitted in Iran by the government as long as it is Iranian -- Iranian folk music, classical music, and pop music is allowed.[39]

Doubts about prohibition

At least a few sources blame prohibition of music not on rigorous interpretation of scripture but the association of "fashionable" secular music "with erotic dance and drinking" (Jacob M. Landau),[40] or "illicit behavior tied to music, rather than to the music itself" (Hussein Rashid).[31] According to Rashid, the Quran, "contains no direct references to music", and hadith contains "conflicting evidence";[31] Landau states that scholars antagonistic to music "relied on forced interpretations of a few unclear passages in the Qurʾān" or Hadīth".[40]

Islamic music

A Musical Gathering – Ottoman, 18th century

Notwithstanding prohibitions on music by certain Islamic scholars, in many parts of the Muslim world devotional/religious music and secular music is well developed and popular. Historically, Islamic art and music flourished during the Islamic Golden Age.[12][13][14] Today, secular and folk musical styles in the Muslim Middle East are found in Arabic music, Egyptian music, Iranian music, Turkish classical music; and in North Africa, Algerian, and Moroccan music. South Asia has distinctive style of music – Afghan, Bangladeshi, Maldivian, Pakistani music.

Nasheed is a Muslim devotional recitation music recited in various melodies by some Muslims of today without any musical instruments, or possibly with percussion.

Music for public religious celebrations includes:

At least according to one scholar, Jacob M. Landau, not only is secular and folk music found in regions throughout the Muslim world, but Islam has its own distinctive category of music -- the "Islamic music" or the "classical Islamic music" — that began development "with the advent of Islam about 610 CE" as a "new art".[40] It formed from pre-Islamic Arabian music with "important contributions" from Persians, Byzantines, Turks, Imazighen (Berbers), and Moors. This music "is characterized by a highly subtle organization of melody and rhythm", where "the vocal component predominates over the instrumental", there is no harmony, only "a single line of melody", and the individual musician "is permitted, and indeed encouraged, to improvise". The core area where it is found stretches "from the Nile valley to Persia", and the farther away one travels, "the less one finds undiluted Islamic music."[40]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Reynolds, Dwight F. (April 2015). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Arab Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 140. doi:10.1017/CCO9781139021708.010. ISBN 978-0-521-89807-2. Besides celebrating the past tradition of slave girls who were bought and sold on the basis of the beauty of their voices and the depth of their song repertoire, the song also brings to the fore contentious issues concerning the permissibility of music in Muslim society. Since the birth of Islam, many have considered music to be an unacceptable distraction from a proper religious life: music, they declare, is haram (unlawful, impermissible). Others, however, have celebrated music's ability to foster aesthetic pleasure, communal celebration, and even, if properly employed, a means of achieving union with the Almighty here and now, the latter a belief of Sufi mystics. In Ghanni li shwayya, music is unabashedly celebrated, lauded for its ability to affect nature, cure illness, soothe the heart, and bring girls to dance.
  2. 1 2 Salhi, Kamal (December 2013). Music, Culture and Identity in the Muslim World: Performance, Politics and Piety. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-317-96310-3. The attitude toward music [in the Muslim world] has always been ambivalent, as expressed in a series of contradictory feelings and concepts: predilection and mistrust; divine-devilish; exalting-disruptive; admissible-prohibited' (Shiloah nd). Views about the admissibility of music, or the art of sound, in the Muslim world, range from complete negation to complete acceptance, even of dance and other bodily expressions.
  3. ↑ Sumarsam (2011). "Past and Present Issues of Islam within the Central Javanese Gamelan and Wayang Kulit". In Harnish, David D.; Rasmussen, Anne K. (eds.). Divine Inspirations: Music and Islam in Indonesia. Oxford University Press. pp. 45–79. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385410.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-538542-7. The consideration of religious singing and instrumental music in the context of Islam is fraught with complexity and ambiguity (Neubauer & Doubleday 2001/12, 599)
  4. ↑ Rasmussen, Anne (August 2010). Women, the Recited Qur'an, and Islamic Music in Indonesia. University of California Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-520-25549-4. Much has been written about the permissibility of music in Islamic contexts, particularly among scholars of Arab music, for whom the topic seems to be re- quired (see, for example, al-Faruqi 1985, 1986; Nasr 2000; Nelson 1985; Racy 1984; Rasmussen 2008; Frishkopf 1999; Sawa 1985, 1989; Farmer 1985; Otterbeck n.d.; and Danielson and Fisher 2002). The eminent musicologist Amnon Shiloah describes the "interminable" debate regarding the permissibility of music as already apparent during the first centuries of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula: "In all the major centers of Islam extending from India, Indonesia and Central Asia to Africa, legalists, theologians, spiritual leaders, urban custodians of morality, the literati and leaders of mystic confraternities, all took part in this debate which elicited views that vary from complete negation to full admittance of all musical forms and means including the controversial dance. Between the two extremes, one can find all possible nuances."(Shiloah 1997, 144)
  5. ↑ Shiloah, Amnon (1995). Music in the World of Islam: A Socio-cultural Study. Wayne State University Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-8143-2970-2. In sum, the attitude toward music has always been ambivalent, as expressed in a series of contradictory feelings and concepts: predilection and mistrust; divine-devilish; exalting-disruptive; admissible-prohibited.
  6. ↑ Harris, Diana (2006). Music Education and Muslims. Trentham Books. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-85856-356-5. Raza (1991, p60) wrote 'the community misinterprets Islam according to their needs, and there are many passages in the hadith which descry music. Those often quoted include : ' Singing sprouts hypocrisy in the heart as rain sprouts plants' (al Baihaqi, in Lambat, 1998) ; 'Musical instruments are amongst the most powerful means by which the devil seduces human beings' ( Farmer , 1973 , p . 24-5). Probably the most important is a hadith narrated by al - Bukhari in which the Prophet (p.b.u.h.) is reported as saying that at some future time there will be people from my umma (the Muslim community) who will seek to make lawful fornication, the wearing of silk by men, wine drinking and the use of musical instruments.
  7. ↑ "Is Music Haram? - Islam Question & Answer". islamqa.info.
  8. ↑ Baker, Raymond William (June 2009). Islam Without Fear: Egypt and the New Islamists. Harvard University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-674-02045-0. Ghazzaly also clarified the essential premise of New Islamist thinking that saw the arts as one among many powerful instruments given to Man by God... Ghazzaly rejected the idea put forward by the amirs that singing is haram, and in particular he objected strongly to the further notion advanced by many Islamists, both conservative and extremist, that a woman's voice is haram and should not be heard. On the other hand, Ghazzaly also refused to countenance the secularists' view that all lyrics set to music were appropriate for an Islamic society...
  9. ↑ Cook, Michael (January 2001). Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-43160-6. An early statement of the contrary view, that music is permitted, is found in Mufaddal ibn Salama fi. later third/ninth century)
  10. ↑ van Nieuwkerk, Karin (1998). "'"An Hour for God and an Hour for the Heart": Islam, Gender and Female Entertainment in Egypt'". Journal of Musical Anthropology of the Mediterranean. 3. ISSN 1825-621X. Since the birth of Islam the permissibility of music and singing has been debated. Not only the lawfulness of the performer but also of the audience was discussed. Advocates and opponents alike traced the legitimacy of their position back to the Quran and the hadiths, the sayings of the Prophet. As in present day Egypt, these debates on the lawfulness of music did not prevent the art from flourishing in palaces and private homes (Sawa 1989; Stigelbauer 1975).
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Scholars and musicians hotly debate whether music is permissible or not". Irish Times. 21 July 2006. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
  12. 1 2 Bhattacharyya, Prasanta; Ghosh, Tapan Kumar (14 December 2016). Mapping out the Rushdie Republic: Some Recent Surveys. ISBN 9781443855624.
  13. 1 2 Bohlman, Philip V. (June 2013). Revival and Reconciliation: Sacred Music in the Making of European Modernity. Scarecrow Press. pp. 12–14. ISBN 978-0-8108-8269-0.
  14. 1 2 LIFE Aladdin. 24 May 2019. ISBN 9781547849031.
  15. ↑ Bohlman, Philip V.; Werkman, Mary (June 7, 2013). Revival and Reconciliation: Sacred Music in the Making of European Modernity. Scarecrow Press, Chicago. ISBN 978-0-8108-8269-0 – via Google Books.
  16. ↑ Neubauer, Eckhard; Doubleday, Veronica (2001). "Islamic religious music". Grove Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
  17. ↑ Sahih al-Bukhari, 5590.
  18. ↑ ibn Hazm, Abu Muhammad Ali. Al-Muhalla.
  19. 1 2 3 4 Landau, Jacob M. "Islamic Arts. Music and religion". Britannica. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
  20. ↑ Shavit, Uriya (2015). Sharī'a and Muslim Minorities: The Wasaṭī and Salafī Approaches to Fiqh Al-aqalliyyāt Al-Muslima. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875723-8. Music is one example: while permitted by wasațis, it is strongly prohibited by salafīs, who draw from lbn Taymiyya's depiction of it as strengthening satanic states. Salafīs hold that decisions that legitimize music deviate from the ways of the salaf, and those who promote them have no knowledge of Islam." The prohibition on music is strict... There are no exceptions...
  21. ↑ Cook, Forbidding Wrong, 2003, p.32
  22. ↑ Armangue, Bernat (25 September 2021). "Under Taliban, thriving music scene heads to silence". Associated Press. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
  23. ↑ Denselow, Robin (15 January 2013). "Mali music ban by Islamists 'crushing culture to impose rule'". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
  24. 1 2 Magrini, Tullia (2005). Music and Gender: Perspectives from the Mediterranean. University of Chicago Press. p. 270. ISBN 0-226-50165-5.
  25. 1 2 3 AL-QARADAWI, YUSUF (13 December 2006). "Singing and Music in Islam". Islamicity. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
  26. ↑ Is Music Permitted in Islaam? – Dr Zakir Naik, archived from the original on 2021-12-22, retrieved 2021-06-16
  27. ↑ "Music and Singing: A Detailed Fatwa". SunniPath. Archived from the original on 2008-04-23. Retrieved 2008-04-01.
  28. ↑ Sahih Bukhari: "Sahih Bukhari Volume 005, Book 058, Hadith Number 268" Archived 2019-01-16 at the Wayback Machine retrieved October 27, 2016
  29. ↑ "Is there room for music in Islam?". BBC. 2007-08-07. Retrieved 2008-04-01.
  30. ↑ Shahbaz Center for Sufism & Islamic Studies" retrieved October 27, 2016
  31. 1 2 3 Rashid, Hussein. "Music and Islam: A Deeper Look". Asia Society. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
  32. ↑ "Islamic Love Dua Music and Islam » FAQ Topics » Music". www.islamiclovedua.com.
  33. ↑ "Ayatollah Sayed Sadiq Hussaini al-Shirazi » FAQ Topics » Music". www.english.shirazi.ir. Archived from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2022-01-03.
  34. ↑ Bureau, Gareth Smyth for Tehran (2015-03-13). "Iran's ayatollahs spring a surprise". The Guardian. Retrieved 2021-08-24.
  35. ↑ Kifner, John (1979-07-24). "Khomeini Bans Broadcast Music, Saying It Corrupts Iranian Youth". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-08-24.
  36. ↑ "Music and power in Iran: An instrument of propaganda and control – Qantara.de". Qantara.de – Dialogue with the Islamic World. Retrieved 2021-08-24.
  37. ↑ Baily, John (2016). War, Exile and the Music of Afghanistan: The Ethnographer’s Tale. Taylor & Francis, p. 109.
  38. ↑ The Telegraph: "Iran's Ayatollah Khamenei reveals surprising taste for Western music" retrieved October 27, 2016
  39. ↑ The Guardian (Tehran Bureau): "Iranians pump up the volume for banned tunes" retrieved October 27, 2016
  40. 1 2 3 4 Landau, Jacob M. "Islamic Arts. Music". Britannica. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
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