Hispanic and Latino Texans are residents of the state of Texas who are of Hispanic or Latino ancestry. As of the 2020 U.S. Census, Hispanics and Latinos of any race were 39.3% of the state's population.[1] Moreover, the U.S Census shows that the 2010 estimated Hispanic population in Texas was 9.7 million and increased to 11.4 million in 2020 with a 2,064,657 population jump from the 2010 Latino population estimate.[2]

In 2022, Hispanics and Latinos of any race overtook the non-Hispanic white population as the state's largest demographic.[3]

History

Origins

The first European to see Texas was Alonso Álvarez de Pineda, who led an expedition for the governor of Jamaica, Francisco de Garay, in 1520. While searching for a passage between the Gulf of Mexico and Asia,[4] Álvarez de Pineda created the first map of the northern Gulf Coast.[5] This map is the earliest recorded document of Texas history.[5] Moreover, the area of present-day Texas was claimed by Spain at this time.[6]

The first map of the Gulf of Mexico drawn during the expedition led by Alonso Alvarez de Pineda in 1519 that depicts the coast of Texas for the first time.[7]

Years later on June 1527, an expedition led by Pánfilo de Narváez and Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca with the purpose of reaching Florida in order to build a city, resulted in a failed mission due to harsh weather and disease.[8] Instead, the Spanish explorers were left shipwrecked off the coast of Texas where the Spanish lived for around six years.[8] After the years spent living in Texas among Indigenous civilization, Narvaez and Cabeza de Baca along with some of their men, found their way back to Mexico City in 1536 and told stories about the extravagancies witnessed in the north.[9] Learning about this, the Spanish set out due north in 1539 with the purpose of discovering riches in places yet to be explored. One of the primary motives for the excursions was for the discovery of gold.[9]

The excursion of the Spanish in 1539 into the north or what is today Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, was led by the Spanish conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado.[10] On July 7, 1540, Coronado's army reached the outskirts of the rumored city of much gold, Cibola, near upper Rio Grande where the Spanish encountered massive resistance from Puebloans.[9] The violence between the Spanish and the Puebloans continued at Cibola until the Puebloan soldiers inhabiting Cibola were forced to leave to a village where their wives and children had moved to for shelter.[9]

When the fighting settled, Coronado decided to explore the land more extendedly, which was when one of the expeditions arrived at Texas in 1541 where they encountered groups of people from the Caddo tribe, leading to more events of violence.[9] After all, Coronado returned to New Spain on April 1542 an informed about the cruel reality of the cities in the north that were explored, describing them as not having any gold or silver.[11] Soon after this, the Spanish decided to remain away from the north or the present day southwest region of the United States for approximately 150 years, though expeditions led by Spaniards and not authorized by Spain did take place within those years.[9] Until 1688, Spain essentially remained out of Texas.[12]

Around 1688, the Spanish learned about French interventions occurring in the area of Texas, land that had already been claimed by Spain.[13] This led to the actions taken by Spaniard Alonso de León, the then governor of Coahuila, to march into Texas towards Fort St. Louis.[13] Fort St. Louis was the location where the French were set up. In April 1689, Alonso de Leon arrived with his army ready to take down the French fort and looking for any remaining French in the area.[13] During the time there, de Leon was informed by some of the located French that the Karankawa people had attacked them and left the fort in ruins, forcing the French to flee.[13] A year after going back to New Spain, de Leon returned to Texas because he was concerned about the French returning to Spanish territory.[10] Spanish activity in Texas remained minimal and only returned when the French attempted to intervene.[9]

In 1690 when de Leon returned to Texas, he had with him an army of about 100 men made up of soldiers and priests and built the first church in Texas, named San Francisco de los Tejas.[14] The construction of this church was a major stepping stone for Spain as Spanish Texas was headed to become an area of greater importance for Spain. After San Francisco de los Tejas was established, the construction of many more missions followed, such as Mision Nuestra Senora del Rosario and Nuestra Senora del Refugio.[9] A year later in January 1691, Domingo Terán de los Ríos was appointed to be the governor of Spanish Texas.[10] Throughout the construction of various churches, the Spanish had interactions with different Indigenous groups. Soon enough, interracial marriages led to the development of different races such as mestizos, criollos, and culebras/mulattos.[9] This led to the development of the Caste system in Texas and throughout the southwest United States. During this time, Spain faced problems with the French, the Natives, and with also with each other.[10] With years passing by, the occurrence of other events such as the American Revolution in 1775, led to more problems in Texas. Soon enough, Spain would have to face the ever-growing United States and the Mexican population while having problems with the Natives and the French.[10]

Mexico declared its independence from Spain on September 16, 1810 and war ended on September 26, 1821.[15] Because of Mexico's independence from Spain, Texas became the property of Mexico.[15] Around this time, the United States had obtained massive amounts of land from France through the Louisiana Purchase in 1803.[16] In addition, under Mexican law, Texas was available for anyone to move to and also offered land grants to empresarios.[17] During this time, the population of Texas grew quickly.[18] The population was not only Mexican but also included United States citizens, Native Americans and enslaved people.[19] When people residing in Texas did not agree with Mexican law and did not follow the law, Mexico ended all immigration into Texas.[19] Such events led to the Texas Independence which then led to the annexation of Texas and then to the Mexican–American War.[10]

On February 2, 1848 the peace treaty, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, was signed between Mexico and the United States which essentially gave the United States much of the land that was owned by Mexico in the north and established the Rio Grande River as the border between Texas and Mexico.[20] Moreover, Hispanics and Latinos already living in the territory that became of the United States, were given the opportunity to stay and obtain United States citizenship.[20] While many chose to leave to their home country, many also decided to stay.[20]

Recent immigration

The major immigration of Mexicans into Texas began during the 1890s due to the growth and Industrialisation aspect of Texas that created a plethora of jobs.[18] Most of immigrants were Mexicans, who migrated to improve their living conditions and give their children a better education.

Demographics

Hispanics (of any race) were 7.1% of the state population in 1910. As of 2010, 45% of Texas residents had Hispanic ancestry; these include recent immigrants from Mexico, Central America, and South America, as well as Tejanos, whose ancestors have lived in Texas as early as the 1700s. Tejanos are the largest ancestry group in southern Duval County and among the largest in and around Bexar County, including San Antonio, where over one million Hispanics live. The state has the second largest Hispanic population in the United States, behind California.

Hispanics dominate southern, south-central, and western Texas and form a significant portion of the residents in the cities of San Antonio, Dallas, Houston, and Austin. The Hispanic population contributes to Texas having a younger population than the American average, because Hispanic births have outnumbered non-Hispanic white births since the early 1990s. In 2007, for the first time since the early nineteenth century, Hispanics accounted for more than half of all births (50.2%), while non-Hispanic whites accounted for just 34%.

Steve Murdock, a demographer with the Hobby Center for the Study of Texas at Rice University and a former director of the U.S. Census Bureau, predicted that, between 2000 and 2040 (assuming that the net migration rate will equal half that of 1990–2000), Hispanic public school enrollment will increase by 213 percent, while non-Hispanic white enrollment will decrease by 15 percent.[21] As of 2010, 29.21% (6,543,702) of Texas residents age 5 and older spoke Spanish at home as a primary language.[22]

Ancestries

(self-identified ethnicity, not by birthplace)
Ancestry by origin (2020-2022 Census)[23]Population%
Argentine 19,696
Bolivian 6,926
Chilean 14,149
Colombian 104,755
Costa Rican 12,961
Cuban 129,482
Dominican 38,063
Ecuadorian 30,411
Guatemalan 151,112
Honduran 242,067
Mexican 9,674,825
Nicaraguan 38,344
Panamanian 22,621
Paraguayan 2,726
Peruvian 37,277
Puerto Rican 264,937
Salvadoran 405,687
"Spanish" 90,033
"Spaniard" 130,833
"Spanish American" 2,128
Uruguayan 3,453
Venezuelan 122,038
All other 520,494
Total 12,070,642
Ancestry by region[24][25]Number%
Mexican 7,951,193 31.6%
Caribbean 190,470 0.8%
Central American 420,683 1.7%
South American 133,808 0.5%
Other Hispanic 764,767 3.0%
Total

Spanish language in Texas

"No Smoking" sign in Spanish and English at the headquarters of the Texas Department of State Health Services in Austin, Texas

In Texas, English is the state's de facto official language (though it lacks de jure status) and is used in government. However, the continual influx of Spanish-speaking immigrants increased the import of Spanish in Texas. Texas's counties bordering Mexico are mostly Hispanic, and consequently, Spanish is commonly spoken in the region. The Government of Texas, through Section 2054.116 of the Government Code, mandates that state agencies provide information on their websites in Spanish to assist residents who have limited English proficiency.[26]

Ethnic conflicts

Origins

A map of the United States and Mexico at the rise of the Mexican American war.

From 1915 to 1919, during the Mexican Revolution, Mexicans and Tejanos in South Texas faced increased violence from Texan Rangers. Due to tensions caused by changes in both governments and the border, people of Latino descent were hanged, shot, burnt, decapitated, and tortured.[27] Texas Legislative Investigation ended this period of violence by finding the Texas Rangers guilty. More recently, the Texas government has acknowledged this period of history with the "Life and Death on the Border, 1910 to 1920" exhibit.[28]

Anti-Latino attitudes spiked during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Latinos, among other foreigners, were accused of stealing jobs from Americans and contributing to the decline of the economy. In response to the growing, Anglo-American, frustration, the United States government forcibly removed 2 million Latinos with the majority of them being American citizens. During these repatriations, local governments denied aid to those of Mexican descent, offered train fares to Mexico and raided Latino communities. Hospitals removed Latinos with disabilities and illness while employers laid off Latino workers. To avoid raids and discrimination, many Latinos returned to Mexico voluntarily. By 1936, approximately one third of Texas's Latino population had been repatriated.[29]

These sentiments heightened in the 1840s with the end of the Mexican-American War and the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The increased population of Latinos were met with further illegal deportations, violence, racism, and segregation.[29] In instance of these reactions was the Olivera Street raid of 1931. During this raid, law enforcement and immigration agents arrested and deported nearly 400 Mexican-Americans despite their citizenship or immigration status in America.

Mob violence

Anti-Latino sentiments grew during the California Gold Rush as many Latinos demonstrated more advanced mining skills than their white counterparts.[30] From the late 19th century, the Gold Rush era, to the early 20th century, mob violence against Spanish-speaking individuals became a common occurrence and the number of victims reached well over thousands.[31] During this period, Texas Rangers carried out lynchings of Hispanic men, women, and children for accusations that included cattle theft, murder, witchcraft, and even refusal to play the fiddle. Some case studies included the burning of Refugio Ramírez and his family for the alleged bewitching of neighbors in 1880 by a mob in Collin County, North Texas. Another event included the Porvenir Massacre of 1918, which involved the seizure and assassination of 15 men and boys from the village of Porvenir in Presidio County, Texas. Although Texas Rangers justified the murders by accusing the people of being "thieves, spies and murderers", the United States Army's and the State Department's investigations found that the denizens of Porvenir were unarmed and innocent. As a result, Texas state government began investigation of the Texas Rangers.[32]

Environmental racism

With a high number of chemical industries and facilities, various neighborhoods within Houston are susceptible to toxic air pollution. The communities closest to these environmentally hazardous spaces are communities of low-income, people of color.[33] Located in East Houston, Harrisburg/Manchester and Galena Park are the two communities with the closest proximity to Risk Management Plan (RMP) facilities or facilities that use certain hazardous substances.[34]

Both Harrisburg/Manchester and Galena Park are largely made up of impoverished, Latino communities with average household incomes of $49,732 and $45,431. Due to the close proximity to RMP facilities, the people of these neighborhoods are at a 24 to 36 percent higher risk of getting cancer when compared to the predominantly white neighborhoods of Houston.[35] Harrisburg/Manchester is geographically centered in the middle of "21 Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) reporting facilities, 11 large quantity generators of hazardous waste, 4 facilities that treat, store or dispose of hazardous waste, 9 major dischargers of air pollutants, and 8 major stormwater discharging facilities". An average of 484,000 pounds of toxic chemicals are released into the Harrisburg/Manchester air while none are released in communities with average household incomes of $226,333 and poverty rate of 3 percent.[36]

School segregation

Spanning from the 1890s to the 1980s, 122 school districts throughout 59 counties established segregated schools for Mexican-Americans. These poorly developed schools lacked the adequate schooling environment. Teachers possessed no credentials or experience while the classrooms lacked the necessary equipment. School administrators often placed Tejano students into 'low-track' classes. By assessing Tejano students on biased rubrics that evaluated mental, emotional, and language abilities, school officials classified Tejano students as inferior and underdeveloped. Beginning with elementary schools, administrators assigned Tejano children to low-level and nonacademic courses, aimed to lead the students to vocational or general-education courses. Due to unequal educational platforms, disregard for Tejano culture, and linguistic intolerance, Hispanic students had higher withdrawal rates and lower academic performances.[33]

Until 1970 Houston Independent School District (HISD) counted its Hispanic and Latino students as "white."[37]

Historic Hispanic/Latino population

Colonial and Mexican era

Total population of Spanish Texas, East of Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico and North of Nuevo Santander prior to admission to U.S. statehood. These three regions formed today's Texas.

Population Statistics
Texas Spaniards, Criollo, Mestizo % pop
1682
(Coulson and Joyce estimates)		 129
(Spanish settlers in Ysleta Mission,
first Spanish foundation in modern-day Texas)[38]		 N/A
1731 500[39] N/A
1742
(Peter Gerhard estimations)		 1,800[40] N/A
1755
(Coulson and Joyce estimates)		 1,600[38] N/A
1761 1,200 (Spanish Texas)[41] N/A
1780 2,000 (Spanish Texas) 50%[40][42]
1790
(Revillagigedo census)[43]		 2,409 (Spanish Texas) 73%
1800
(Juan Bautista Elguézabal census)		 4,800 (Spanish Texas)[40] N/A
1810 5,000 (Spanish Texas)[44] N/A
1821 10,500
- 2,500 (Spanish Texas)[Note 1][45]
- 8,000 (El Paso)[45][Note 2]		 10%[46]
1830
(Coulson and Joyce estimates)		 3,000 (Spanish Texas)[38] N/A

Independent and American Texas

Texas Texas Number of people of Mexican Origin (1850-1930)
and of Hispanic/Latino Origin (1940-2020) in Texas[47][48][49][50][a]		 +% of Population of Mexican Origin (1850-1930)
and of Hispanic/Latino Origin (1940-2020) in Texas
1840 7,000 10%[51]
1845
(year of the U.S. annexation of Texas)		 23,000[52] N/A
1850 14,000[53] N/A
1860 12,000[54] N/A
1870 N/A N/A
1880 74,401[55] N/A
1890 N/A N/A
1900 165,000[56] - 173,980[55] N/A
1910 276,654 - 280,975[55] 7.1%
1920 461,659 - 472,616[55] 9.9%
1930 732,106[55] - 803,810 13.8%
1940 736,433 11.5%
1950 1,025,588 13.3%
1960 1,417,792 14.8%
1970 1,981,861 (15% sample) 17.7%
1980 2 985 824 21.0%
1990 4 339 905 25.5%
2000 6,669,666 32.0%
2010 9,460,921 37.6%
2020 11,441,717 39.3%

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The Mexican War of Independence caused a loss of population throughout the country, including Texas.
  2. ↑ Spanish Texas consisted of East Texas and the part of Louisiana bordering Texas, where Los Adaes was located. West Texas belonged to Santa Fe de New Mexico, which included El Paso. In 1821, El Paso and the surrounding area had 8,000 Hispanics.

References

  1. ↑ "P2 Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race". Census.gov. Retrieved April 17, 2022.
  2. ↑ Tribune, The Texas; Ahmed, Alexa Ura and Naema (June 25, 2020). "Texas' Hispanic population grew by 2 million in the past decade, on pace to be largest share of state by 2021". The Texas Tribune. Retrieved April 17, 2022.
  3. ↑ Ura, Alexa (2023-06-22). "Hispanics officially make up the biggest share of Texas' population, new census numbers show". The Texas Tribune. Retrieved 2023-06-22.
  4. ↑ Weber (1992), p. 34.
  5. 1 2 Chipman (1992), p. 243.
  6. ↑ Chipman, Donald E.; Joseph, Harriett Denise (2010-01-15). Spanish Texas, 1519–1821: Revised Edition. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-72180-7.
  7. ↑ Chipman, Donald E.; Joseph, Harriett Denise (2010-01-15). Spanish Texas, 1519–1821: Revised Edition. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-72180-7.
  8. 1 2 ""Shipwrecked" by Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca, and the Description of the Journey Which he Made Through Florida with Panfilo de Narvaez". www.wdl.org. 1749. Retrieved 2019-04-14.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Fehrenbach, T. R. (2014-04-01). Lone Star: A History of Texas and the Texans. Open Road Media. ISBN 978-1-4976-0970-9.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 The History of Texas. John Wiley & Sons. 2013-11-19. ISBN 978-1-118-61787-8.
  11. ↑ Chipman, Donald E. (1976). "Review of Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds: The Confrontation of Indians, Spanish, and French in the Southwest, 1540-1795". The Journal of Southern History. 42 (2): 269–270. doi:10.2307/2206757. JSTOR 2206757.
  12. ↑ Chipman, Donald E.; Joseph, Harriett Denise (2010-01-15). Spanish Texas, 1519–1821: Revised Edition. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-72180-7.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Chipman, Donald E.; Joseph, Harriett Denise (2010-01-15). Spanish Texas, 1519–1821: Revised Edition. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-72180-7.
  14. ↑ Poyo, Gerald E.; Hinojosa, Gilberto M. (1988). "Spanish Texas and Borderlands Historiography in Transition: Implications for United States History". The Journal of American History. 75 (2): 393–416. doi:10.2307/1887864. JSTOR 1887864. ProQuest 224944408.
  15. 1 2 Young, Eric Van (2001). The Other Rebellion: Popular Violence, Ideology, and the Mexican Struggle for Independence, 1810-1821. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4821-6.
  16. ↑ Kastor, Peter J. (2008-10-01). The Nation?s Crucible: The Louisiana Purchase and the Creation of America. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12824-6.
  17. ↑ Menchaca, Martha (2001). Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-75254-2.
  18. 1 2 Jordan, Terry G. (1986). "A Century and a Half of Ethnic Change in Texas, 1836-1986". The Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 89 (4): 385–422. JSTOR 30239930.
  19. 1 2 Edmondson, J. R. (2000-02-09). Alamo Story: From Early History to Current Conflicts. Taylor Trade Publications. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6.
  20. 1 2 3 Castillo, Richard Griswold del (1992-09-01). The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: A Legacy of Conflict. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2478-0.
  21. ↑ Scharrer, Gary. "Texas demographer: 'It's basically over for Anglos'" Houston Chronicle. February 24, 2011. Retrieved on February 27, 2011.
  22. ↑ "Texas". Modern Language Association. Archived from the original on June 19, 2006. Retrieved August 11, 2013.
  23. ↑ https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2022.B03001?q=B03001:%20Hispanic%20or%20Latino%20Origin%20by%20Specific%20Origin&g=010XX00US,$0400000
  24. ↑ US Census Bureau: "Redistricting Data, First Look at Local 2010 Census Results" Archived 2013-10-20 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ↑ US Census Bureau, Systems Support Division. "Population by Race and Hispanic or Latino Origin for the United States: 1990 and 2000 (PHC-T-1)". Census.gov. Archived from the original on 20 January 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
  26. ↑ "Sec. 2054.001." Texas Legislature. Retrieved on June 27, 2010.
  27. ↑ "The History of Racial Violence on the Mexico-Texas Border". Refusing to Forget. 2018-02-15. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
  28. ↑ "The Texas Rangers Killed Hundreds of Hispanic Americans During the Mexican Revolution". Texas Standard. 2016-01-22. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
  29. 1 2 Blakemore, Erin (29 August 2018). "The Brutal History of Anti-Latino Discrimination in America". HISTORY. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
  30. ↑ "SFOpera - The Dark Side of the Gold Rush". sfopera.com. Retrieved 2019-04-20.
  31. ↑ Blakemore, Erin (29 August 2018). "The Brutal History of Anti-Latino Discrimination in America". HISTORY. Retrieved 2019-04-20.
  32. ↑ Romero, Simon (2019-03-02). "Lynch Mobs Killed Latinos Across the West. The Fight to Remember These Atrocities is Just Starting". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2019-04-20.
  33. 1 2 SAN MIGUEL, GUADALUPE (2010-06-15). "MEXICAN AMERICANS AND EDUCATION". tshaonline.org. Retrieved 2019-04-20.
  34. ↑ US EPA, OLEM (2013-10-29). "Risk Management Plan (RMP) Rule Overview". US EPA. Retrieved 2019-04-20.
  35. ↑ "Houston Chemical Facilities Put Vulnerable Communities in Double Jeopardy". Union of Concerned Scientists. Retrieved 2019-04-20.
  36. ↑ "Environmental Racism in Houston's Harrisburg/Manchester Neighborhood". Sustainable Urban Systems Initiative at Stanford. 15 March 2018. Retrieved 2019-04-20.
  37. ↑ Kellar, William Henry. Make Haste Slowly: Moderates, Conservatives, and School Desegregation in Houston. Texas A&M University Press, 1999. ISBN 1603447180, 9781603447188. p. 33 (Google Books PT14).
  38. 1 2 3 David P. Coulson; Linda Joyce (August 2003). "United States state-level population estimates: Colonization to 1999" (PDF). USDA. p. 44.
  39. ↑ Weber, David J. (1993), The Spanish Frontier in North America, Yale Western Americana Series, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-05198-0
  40. 1 2 3 Tjarks, Alicia V. (1974). "Comparative Demographic Analysis of Texas, 1777-1793". The Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 77 (3): 291–338. JSTOR 30238279.
  41. ↑ Donald Chipman (1992). Spanish Texas, 1519-1821.University of Texas Press
  42. ↑ Calvert, Robert A.; León, Arnoldo De; Cantrell, Gregg (2014). The History of Texas. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-118-61772-4.
  43. ↑ "New Spain (Mexico), 1790 Statistics Charts". 24 December 2013. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2017.
  44. ↑ Mario Ojeda, Mario Ojeda Gómez (1982). Administración del desarrollo de la frontera norte. Colegio de México. p. 43. ISBN 978-968-12-0191-3. Retrieved 6 October 2021.
  45. 1 2 Basanate, Marcela Terrazas y (2008). "Las fronteras septentrionales de México ante el avance norteamericano, 1700-1846" [Mexico's northern borders in the face of the North American advance. 1700-1846]. Península (in Spanish). 3 (2).
  46. ↑ Enrique Rajchenberg S.; Catherine Héau-Lambert. "El desierto como representación del territorio septentrional de México" (PDF). p. 7. Retrieved 6 October 2021.
  47. ↑ "Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States" (PDF). Census.gov. p. 76. Retrieved 2015-07-30.
  48. ↑ "U.S. Census of Population: 1960" (PDF). Www2.census.gov. Retrieved 2012-09-30.
  49. ↑ "The Hispanic Population: 2000" (PDF). US Census Bureau. Retrieved 2015-07-30.
  50. ↑ "The Hispanic Population: 2010" (PDF). US Census Bureau. Retrieved 2015-07-30.
  51. ↑ John E. Farley. 2010. Majority-Minority Relations. Sixth Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall
  52. ↑ Laura E. Gómez (2007). Manifest Destinies: The Making of the Mexican American Race. New York University Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-8147-3203-8.
  53. ↑ "Mexican Americans." Handbook of Texas. Retrieved on December 11, 2011.
  54. ↑ Suzanne Forrest (1998). The Preservation of the Village: New Mexico's Hispanics and the New Deal. New Mexico Land Grant Series, University of New Mexico. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-8263-1973-9.
  55. 1 2 3 4 5 José A. Cobas; Joe R. Feagin; Daniel J. Delgado; Maria Chávez (2009). Latino Peoples in the New America: Racialization and Resistance. New Critical Viewpoints On Society Series. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-429-75363-3.
  56. ↑ Alwyn Barr (November 1, 1995). "Late Nineteenth-Century Texas". Handbook of Texas.

Further reading

  • Campney, Brent MS. "'The Most Turbulent and Most Traumatic Years in Recent Mexican-American History': Police Violence and the Civil Rights Struggle in 1970s Texas." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 122.1 (2018): 33–57. online
  • De León, Arnoldo. Mexican Americans in Texas: A Brief History, 2nd ed. (1999)
  • Deutsch, Sarah No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on the Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1880-1940 1987
  • Dysart, Jane. "Mexican Women in San Antonio, 1830-1860: The Assimilation Process" Western Historical Quarterly 7 (October 1976): 365–375. in JSTOR
  • Gómez, Laura E. Manifest destinies: The making of the Mexican American race (NYU Press, 2018).
  • Gonzales, Richard J. (2016). Raza Rising: Chicanos in North Texas. University of North Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-57441-632-9., popular history
  • Kreneck, Thomas H. Del Pueblo: A History of Houston's Hispanic Community (Gulf Coast Books, sponsored by Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, 2012 excerpt
  • Maxwell, William Earl, et al. Texas Politics Today 2017-2018 (Cengage Learning, 2016).
  • Montejano, David. Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (U of Texas Press, 1987).
  • Muñoz Martinez, Monica. The Injustice Never Leaves You: Anti-Mexican Violence in Texas (2018)
  • Perry, Ann. A Guide to Hispanic Texas (U of Texas Press, 1996)
  • Richardson, Chad, and Michael J. Pisani. Batos, bolillos, pochos, and pelados: Class and culture on the South Texas border (U of Texas Press, 2017).
  • Rivas-Rodriguez, Maggie. Texas Mexican Americans and Postwar Civil Rights (U of Texas Press, 2015}.
  • Stewart, Kenneth L., and Arnoldo De León. Not Room Enough: Mexicans, Anglos, and Socioeconomic Change in Texas, 1850-1900 (1993)
  • Tijerina, Andrés. Tejanos and Texas under the Mexican Flag, 1821-1836 (1994),
  • Tijerina, Andrés. Tejano Empire: Life on the South Texas Ranchos (1998).
  • Trevino, Roberto R. The Church in the Barrio: Mexican American Ethno-Catholicism in Houston. (2006). 308pp.

Historiography

  • De León, Arnoldo. "Texas Mexicans: Twentieth-Century Interpretations," in Texas Through Time: Evolving Interpretations, ed by Walter L. Buenger and Robert A. Calvert (Texas A&M University Press, 1991), 20–49.
  • De León, Arnoldo. "Whither Tejano History: Origins, Development, and Status," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 106 (January 2003) 349–364.
  • De León, Arnoldo. "Mexican Americans," in Discovering Texas History, ed. Bruce A. Glasrud,

Light Townsend Cummins, and Cary D. Wintz (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014), 31–48.

  • De León, Arnoldo. "What's Amiss in Tejano History?: The Misrepresentation and Neglect of West Texas." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 120.3 (2016): 314–331. excerpt
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