Masjid al-Haram
Sacred Mosque
Arabic: ٱَلْمَسْجِدُ ٱلْحَرَامُ‎
Aerial view
Religion
AffiliationIslam
Branch/traditionMuslims
LeadershipYasser Al-Dosari (Imam)
Abdur Rahman As-Sudais (Imam)
Abdullah Awad Al Juhany (Imam)
Maher Al Mueaqly (Imam)
Salih bin Abdullah al Humaid (Imam)
Faisal Ghazawi (Imam)
Bandar Baleela (Imam)
Usaamah Khayyat (imam)
Ali Ahmed Mullah (Chief Mu'azzin)
Location
LocationMecca, Hejaz (present-day Saudi Arabia)[1]
Masjid al-Haram is located in Saudi Arabia
Masjid al-Haram
Location in Saudi Arabia
Masjid al-Haram is located in Asia
Masjid al-Haram
Masjid al-Haram (Asia)
Masjid al-Haram is located in Earth
Masjid al-Haram
Masjid al-Haram (Earth)
AdministrationSaudi Arabian government
Geographic coordinates21°25′21″N 39°49′34″E / 21.42250°N 39.82611°E / 21.42250; 39.82611
Architecture
TypeMosque
Specifications
Capacity2.5 million[2]
Minaret(s)9
Minaret height89 m (292 ft)
Site area356,000 square metres (88 acres) [3]

Masjid al-Haram (Arabic: ٱَلْمَسْجِدُ ٱلْحَرَامُ‎, romanized: al-Masjid al-Ḥarām, lit. 'The Sacred Mosque'),[4] also known as the Sacred Mosque or the Great Mosque of Mecca,[5] is a mosque enclosing the vicinity of the Kaaba in Mecca, in the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia. It is a site of pilgrimage in the Hajj, which every Muslim must do at least once in their lives if able, and is also the main phase for the ʿUmrah, the lesser pilgrimage that can be undertaken any time of the year. The rites of both pilgrimages include circumambulating the Kaaba within the mosque. The Great Mosque includes other important significant sites, including the Black Stone, the Zamzam Well, Maqam Ibrahim, and the hills of Safa and Marwa.[6]

As of December 2023, the Great Mosque is both the largest mosque in the world, and the most expensive building in the world. It has undergone major renovations and expansions through the years.[7] It has passed through the control of various caliphs, sultans and kings, and is now under the control of the King of Saudi Arabia who is titled the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques.[8]

History

The Great Mosque contends with the Masjid As-Sahabah in the Eritrean city of Massawa[9] and Quba Mosque in Medina as the oldest mosque.[10] According to Islamic tradition, Islam as a religion precedes Muhammad,[11][12][13] representing previous prophets such as Abraham.[14] Abraham is credited by Muslims with having built the Kaaba in Mecca, and consequently its sanctuary, which according to the Muslim view is seen as the first mosque[15] that ever existed.[16][17][18] According to other scholars, Islam started during the lifetime of Muhammad in the 7th century CE,[19] and so did architectural components such as the mosque. In that case, either the Mosque of the Companions[20] or Quba Mosque would be the first mosque that was built in the history of Islam.[15]

Era of Abraham and Ismael

According to Islamic doctrine in the Quran, Abraham together with his son Ismael raised the foundations of a house,[21] which has been identified by commentators as the Kaaba. God showed Abraham the exact site which was previously built by Adam, very near to what is now the Well of Zamzam, where Abraham and Ishmael began work on the construction of the Kaaba. After Abraham had built the Kaaba, an angel brought to him the Black Stone, a celestial stone that, according to tradition, had fallen from Heaven on the nearby hill Abu Qubays. The Black Stone is believed by Islamic scholars to be the only remnant of the original structure made by Abraham.

After placing the Black Stone in the Eastern corner of the Kaaba, Abraham received a revelation, in which God told the aged prophet that he should now go and proclaim the pilgrimage to mankind, so that men may come both from Arabia and from lands far away, on camel and on foot.[22]

Era of Muhammad

Upon Muhammad's victorious return to Mecca in 630 CE, he broke the idols in and around the Kaaba,[23] similar to what, according to the Quran, Abraham did in his homeland. Thus ended polytheistic use of the Kaaba, and began monotheistic rule over it and its sanctuary.[24][25][26][27]

Umayyad era

The first major renovation to the mosque took place in 692 on the orders of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.[28] Before this renovation, which included the mosque's outer walls being raised and decoration added to the ceiling, the mosque was a small open area with the Kaaba at the center. By the end of the 8th century, the mosque's old wooden columns had been replaced with marble columns and the wings of the prayer hall had been extended on both sides along with the addition of a minaret on the orders of Al-Walid I.[29][30] The spread of Islam in the Middle East and the influx of pilgrims required an almost complete rebuilding of the site which included adding more marble and three more minarets.

Ottoman era

In 1570, Sultan Selim II commissioned the chief architect Mimar Sinan to renovate the mosque. This renovation resulted in the replacement of the flat roof with domes decorated with calligraphy internally, and the placement of new support columns which are acknowledged as the earliest architectural features of the present mosque. These features are the oldest surviving parts of the building.

During heavy rains and flash floods in 1621 and 1629, the walls of the Kaaba and the mosque suffered extensive damage.[31] In 1629, during the reign of Sultan Murad IV, the mosque was renovated. In the renovation of the mosque, a new stone arcade was added, three more minarets (bringing the total to seven) were built, and the marble flooring was retiled. This was the unaltered state of the mosque for nearly three centuries.

The Great Mosque in an illustration of the Dala'il al-Khayrat of Mustafa Halim, 1750
The Great Mosque in an illustration of the Futuh al-Haramayn of Muhi Al-Din Lari, 1582
The mosque in 1850, during the Ottoman period
Plan of the Masjid al-Haram, 1884
The mosque in 1910, during the Ottoman period

The Saudi era

Huge uncontrolled crowds in Haram have caused stampedes causing suffocation and deaths.

First Saudi expansion

The first major renovation under the Saudi kings was done between 1955 and 1973. In this renovation, four more minarets were added, the ceiling was refurnished, and the floor was replaced with artificial stone and marble. The Mas'a gallery (As-Safa and Al-Marwah) is included in the Mosque, via roofing and enclosures. During this renovation many of the historical features built by the Ottomans, particularly the support columns, were demolished.

On 20 November 1979, the Great Mosque was seized by extremist insurgents who called for the overthrow of the Saudi dynasty. They took hostages and in the ensuing siege hundreds were killed. These events came as a shock to the Islamic world, as violence is strictly forbidden within the mosque.

Second Saudi expansion

The second Saudi renovations under King Fahd, added a new wing and an outdoor prayer area to the mosque. The new wing, which is also for prayers, is reached through the King Fahd Gate. This extension was performed between 1982 and 1988.[32]

1987 to 2005 saw the building of more minarets, the erecting of a King's residence overlooking the mosque and more prayer area in and around the mosque itself. These developments took place simultaneously with those in Arafat, Mina and Muzdalifah. This extension also added 18 more gates, three domes corresponding in position to each gate and the installation of nearly 500 marble columns. Other modern developments added heated floors, air conditioning, escalators and a drainage system.

In addition, the King Fahd expansion includes 6 dedicated prayer halls for people with disabilities. These halls have ramps to facilitate entry and exit with wheelchairs, as well as dedicated paths and free electric and manual carts for their use.[33]


Third Saudi expansion

In 2008, the Saudi government under King Abdullah Ibn Abdulaziz announced an expansion[34] of the mosque, involving the expropriation of land to the north and northwest of the mosque covering 300,000 m2 (3,200,000 sq ft). At that time, the mosque covered an area of 356,800 m2 (3,841,000 sq ft) including indoor and outdoor praying spaces. 40 billion riyals (US$10.6 billion) was allocated for the expansion project.[35]

In August 2011, the government under King Abdullah announced further details of the expansion. It would cover an area of 400,000 m2 (4,300,000 sq ft) and accommodate 1.2 million worshippers, including a multi-level extension on the north side of the complex, new stairways and tunnels, a gate named after King Abdullah, and two minarets, bringing the total number of minarets to eleven. The circumambulation areas (Mataf) around the Kaaba would be expanded and all closed spaces receive air conditioning. After completion, it would raise the mosque's capacity from 770,000 to over 2.5 million worshippers.[36][37] His successor, King Salman launched five megaprojects as part of the overall King Abdullah Expansion Project in July 2015, covering an area of 456,000 m2 (4,910,000 sq ft). The project was carried out by the Saudi Binladin Group.[38] In 2012, the Abraj Al Bait complex was completed along with the 601 meter tall Makkah Royal Clock Tower.

On 11 September 2015, at least 111 people died and 394 were injured when a crane collapsed onto the mosque.[39][40][41][42][43] Construction work was suspended after the incident, and remained on hold due to financial issues during the 2010s oil glut. Development was eventually restarted two years later in September 2017.[44]

On 5 March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the mosque began to be closed at night and the Umrah pilgrimage was suspended to limit attendance.[45] The resumption of Umrah service began on 4 October 2020 with the first phase of a gradual resumption that was limited to Saudi citizens and expatriates from within the Kingdom at a rate of 30 per cent.[46] Only 10,000 people were given Hajj visas in 2020 while 60,000 people were given visas in 2021.

List of former and current Imams

Former Imams

Imams:[47]

  • Abdullah Al-Khulaifi (Arabic: عَبْد ٱلله ٱلْخُلَيْفِي), appointed Imam and Khateeb from 1953 till his death in 1993.
  • Ahmad Khatib (Arabic: أَحْمَد خَطِيْب‎), Islamic Scholar from Indonesia
  • Ali bin Abdullah Jaber (Arabic: عَلِى بِن عَبْدُ ٱلله جَابِر‎), Imam from 1981 to 1983, guest Imam for Ramadhan 1986–1989
  • Umar Al-Subayyil (Arabic: عُمَر ٱلسُّبَيِّل‎), Imam and Khateeb from 1993 until 2002, died in 2002
  • Mohammad Al Subail (Arabic: مُحَمَّد ٱلسُّبَيِّل‎), died in 2012
  • Abdullah Al-Harazi (Arabic: عَبْد ٱلله الْحَرَازِي‎), former Chairman of Saudi Majlis al-Shura
  • Ali bin Abdur-Rahman Al-Huthaify (Arabic: عَلِي بِن عَبْدُ ٱلرَّحۡمٰن ٱلْحُذَيْفِي‎), guest Imam for Ramadhan 1981, 1985–1986, 1988–1991, now Chief Imam of The Prophet's Mosque
  • Salah ibn Muhammad Al-Budair (Arabic: صَلَاح ابْن مُحَمَّد ٱلْبُدَيْر‎), led Taraweeh in Ramadan 1426 (2005) and 1427 (2006), now Deputy Chief Imam of The Prophet's Mosque
  • Adil al-Kalbani[48] (Arabic: عَادِل ٱلْكَلْبَانِي‎)
  • Saleh Al-Talib (suspended)
  • Khalid al Ghamdi He retired as Imam and Khateeb of Masjid Al Haram in September 2018.
  • Saud Al-Shuraim, appointed Imam and Khateeb in 1412 (1992) and now resigned in 2022.

Current Imams

  • Salih bin Abdullah al Humaid, appointed Imam and Khateeb in 1404 (1984).
  • Usama Abdul Aziz Al-Khayyat, appointed Imam and Khateeb in 1418 (1998).
  • Abdullah Awad Al Juhany, appointed Imam in 1428 (2007) and Khateeb in 1441 (2019).
  • Mahir Al-Muayqali, appointed Imam in 1428 (2007), and Khateeb in 1437 (2016).
  • Yasser Al-Dosari, appointed Imam in 1434 (2014).
  • Bandar Baleelah, appointed Imam in 1434 (2013), and Khateeb in 1441 (2019).[50]
  • Faisal Jameel Ghazzawi, appointed Imam and Khateeb in 1429 (2008).[51]

Pilgrimage

The Great Mosque is the main setting for the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages[52] that occur in the month of Dhu al-Hijja in the Islamic calendar and at any time of the year, respectively. The Hajj pilgrimage is one of the Pillars of Islam, required of all able-bodied Muslims who can afford the trip. In recent times, over 5 million Muslims perform the Hajj every year.[53]

Structures

Destruction of heritage sites

There has been some controversy that the expansion projects of the mosque and Mecca itself are causing harm to early Islamic heritage. Many ancient buildings, some more than a thousand years old, have been demolished to make room for the expansion. Some examples are:[62][63]

  • Dār Al-Arqam, the Islamic school where Muhammad first taught, was flattened to lay marble tiles.
  • The house of Abu Jahal has been demolished and replaced by public washrooms.
  • A dome that served as a canopy over the Well of Zamzam was demolished.
  • Some Ottoman porticos at the Mosque were demolished.[64]

See also

Further reading

Online

References

  1. ↑ "Location of Masjid al-Haram". Google Maps. Archived from the original on 25 May 2014. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
  2. ↑ "AL HARAM". makkah-madinah.accor.com.
  3. ↑ Daye, Ali (21 March 2018). "Grand Mosque Expansion Highlights Growth of Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry (6 mins)". Cornell Real Estate Review. Archived from the original on 9 February 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  4. ↑ Denny, Frederick M. (9 August 1990). Kieckhefer, Richard; Bond, George D. (eds.). Sainthood: Its Manifestations in World Religions. University of California Press. p. 69. ISBN 9780520071896. Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
  5. ↑ "Great Mosque of Mecca | History, Expansion, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 December 2019. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
  6. ↑ Quran 3:97 (Translated by Yusuf Ali)
  7. ↑ "Mecca crane collapse: Saudi inquiry into Grand Mosque disaster". BBC News. 12 September 2015. Archived from the original on 12 September 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2019.
  8. ↑ "Is Saudi Arabia Ready for Moderate Islam? – Latest Gulf News". www.fairobserver.com. 3 November 2017. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 25 November 2017.
  9. ↑ Reid, Richard J. (12 January 2012). "The Islamic Frontier in Eastern Africa". A History of Modern Africa: 1800 to the Present. John Wiley and Sons. p. 106. ISBN 978-0470658987. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  10. ↑ Palmer, A. L. (26 May 2016). Historical Dictionary of Architecture (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 185–236. ISBN 978-1442263093. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 22 October 2018.
  11. ↑ Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 12. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.
  12. ↑ Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.
  13. ↑ Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5.
  14. ↑ Alli, Irfan (26 February 2013). 25 Prophets of Islam. eBookIt.com. ISBN 978-1456613075. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  15. 1 2 Palmer, A. L. (26 May 2016). Historical Dictionary of Architecture (2nd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 185–236. ISBN 978-1442263093. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 22 October 2018.
  16. ↑ Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies (1986). Goss, V. P.; Bornstein, C. V. (eds.). The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades. Vol. 21. Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University. p. 208. ISBN 978-0918720580. Archived from the original on 20 November 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  17. ↑ Mustafa Abu Sway. "The Holy Land, Jerusalem and Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Qur'an, Sunnah and other Islamic Literary Source" (PDF). Central Conference of American Rabbis. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 July 2011.
  18. ↑ Dyrness, W. A. (29 May 2013). Senses of Devotion: Interfaith Aesthetics in Buddhist and Muslim Communities. Vol. 7. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 25. ISBN 978-1620321362. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  19. ↑ Watt, William Montgomery (2003). Islam and the Integration of Society. Psychology Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-415-17587-6. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  20. ↑ Reid, Richard J. (12 January 2012). "The Islamic Frontier in Eastern Africa". A History of Modern Africa: 1800 to the Present. John Wiley and Sons. p. 106. ISBN 978-0470658987. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  21. ↑ Quran 2:127 (Translated by Yusuf Ali)
  22. ↑ "Quran 22:27". Archived from the original on 3 October 2016. Retrieved 1 October 2016.
  23. ↑ Quran 21:57–58
  24. ↑ Mecca: From Before Genesis Until Now, M. Lings, pg. 39, Archetype
  25. ↑ Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, C. Glasse, Kaaba, Suhail Academy
  26. ↑ Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad (1955). Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah – The Life of Muhammad Translated by A. Guillaume. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 88–9. ISBN 9780196360331.
  27. ↑ Karen Armstrong (2002). Islam: A Short History. p. 11. ISBN 0-8129-6618-X.
  28. ↑ Guidetti, Mattia (2016). In the Shadow of the Church: The Building of Mosques in Early Medieval Syria: The Building of Mosques in Early Medieval Syria. BRILL. p. 113. ISBN 9789004328839. Archived from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2017.
  29. ↑ Petersen, Andrew (2002). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. Routledge. ISBN 9781134613656. Archived from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2017.
  30. ↑ Ali, Wijdan (1999). The Arab Contribution to Islamic Art: From the Seventh to the Fifteenth Centuries. American Univ in Cairo Press. ISBN 9789774244766. Archived from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2017.
  31. ↑ James Wynbrandt (2010). A Brief History of Saudi Arabia. Infobase Publishing. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8160-7876-9. Archived from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
  32. ↑ "Gates of Masjid al-Haram". Madain Project. Archived from the original on 18 March 2018. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
  33. ↑ "Presidency of the Two Holy Mosques. (2023, August 3). 6 dedicated prayer halls for people with disabilities in the King Fahd expansion of the Grand Mosque. Tweet".
  34. ↑ "King 'Abdullah Extension of Masjid al-Haram". Madain Project. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
  35. ↑ "Riyadh Expands Masjid al-Haram". OnIslam.net. 6 January 2008. Archived from the original on 28 December 2013.
  36. ↑ "Historic Masjid Al-Haram Extension Launched". onislam. 20 August 2011. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
  37. ↑ "Saudi Arabia starts Mecca mosque expansion". reuters.com. 20 August 2011. Archived from the original on 20 June 2017. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
  38. ↑ "King launches key Grand Mosque expansion projects". Saudi Gazette. 12 July 2015. Archived from the original on 9 February 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  39. ↑ "Makkah crane crash report submitted". Al Arabiya. 14 September 2015. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 15 September 2015.
  40. ↑ "King Salman to make findings of Makkah crane collapse probe public". Archived from the original on 18 August 2018. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
  41. ↑ "Number of casualties of Turkish Haji candidates at the Kaaba accident reach 8…". Presidency of Religious Affairs. 13 September 2015. Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 15 September 2015.
  42. ↑ "Six Nigerians among victims of Saudi crane accident: official". Yahoo! News. AFP. 16 September 2015. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 16 September 2015.
  43. ↑ Halkon, Ruth; Webb, Sam (13 September 2015). "Two Brits dead and three injured in Mecca Grand Mosque crane tragedy that killed 107 people l". Mirror Online. Archived from the original on 16 September 2015. Retrieved 16 September 2015.
  44. ↑ "Saudi Arabia to restart work on $26.6 bln Grand Mosque expansion". Reuters. 17 August 2017. Archived from the original on 15 February 2019. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  45. ↑ "Saudi Arabia announces extraordinary measures to protect Mecca and Medina from coronavirus". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 8 March 2020. Retrieved 8 March 2020.
  46. ↑ "COVID-19: 60,000 worshipers allowed to pray at Grand Mosque, Saudi Arabia, from Sunday". gulfnews.com. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  47. ↑ "Names of Former Imams 1345–1435 Ah". Archived from the original on 18 May 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
  48. ↑ WORTH, ROBERT F. (10 April 2009). "A Black Imam Breaks Ground in Mecca". The New York Times. Riyadh. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
  49. ↑ "List of 10 Imams of Masjid al Haram | Who is the Current Imam? |". 28 April 2022.
  50. ↑ "Who's Who: Sheikh Bandar Baleelah, imam at the Grand Mosque in Makkah". Arab News. 19 July 2021. Archived from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 28 August 2021.
  51. ↑ "Sheikh Dr. Faisal Jameel Ghazzawi, Makkah Grand Mosque imam". Arab News. 17 May 2019. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 28 August 2021.
  52. ↑ Mohammed, Mamdouh N. (1996). Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z. Mamdouh Mohammed. ISBN 0-915957-54-X.
  53. ↑ General statistics of the Umrah season of 1436 A.H. until 24:00 hours, 28/09/1436 A.H. Total Number of the Mu`tamirs: 5,715,051 "General statistics of the Umrah season of 1436 A.H." The Ministry of Hajj, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Archived from the original on 13 August 2015.
  54. 1 2 Wensinck, A. J; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of Islam IV p. 317
  55. ↑ "In pictures: Hajj pilgrimage". BBC News. 7 December 2008. Archived from the original on 20 January 2009. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
  56. ↑ "As Hajj begins, more changes and challenges in store". altmuslim. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012.
  57. ↑ Shaykh Safi-Ar-Rahman Al-Mubarkpuri (2002). Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar): Biography of the Prophet. Dar-As-Salam Publications. ISBN 1-59144-071-8.
  58. ↑ Mohamed, Mamdouh N. (1996). Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z. Amana Publications. ISBN 0-915957-54-X.
  59. ↑ M.J. Kister, "Maḳām Ibrāhīm," p.105, The Encyclopaedia of Islam (new ed.), vol. VI (Mahk-Mid), eds. Bosworth et al., Brill: 1991, pp. 104–107.
  60. ↑ "Bayt al-Mawlid". Hajj & Umrah Planner. Makkah. 6 April 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2022.
  61. ↑ Ibrahim, Abdul-Wahhab Abu Sulaiman (7 April 2012). "Establishing The Location of the Bayt al-Mawlid". Dar al-Hadith. Retrieved 18 July 2022.
  62. ↑ Taylor, Jerome (24 September 2011). "Mecca for the Rich: Islam's holiest site turning into Vegas". The Independent. Archived from the original on 16 June 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2017.
  63. ↑ Abou-Ragheb, Laith (12 July 2005). "Dr.Sami Angawi on Wahhabi Desecration of Makkah". Center for Islamic Pluralism. Archived from the original on 22 July 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
  64. ↑ "Ottoman Portico Demonstrates Kurşun's Lack of Knowledge of Historical Sources". Al Arabiya English. 19 July 2020. Archived from the original on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
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