Arrows in the plane

The first example of a vector space consists of arrows in a fixed plane, starting at one fixed point. This is used in physics to describe forces or velocities. Given any two such arrows, v and w, the parallelogram spanned by these two arrows contains one diagonal arrow that starts at the origin, too. This new arrow is called the sum of the two arrows, and is denoted v + w. In the special case of two arrows on the same line, their sum is the arrow on this line whose length is the sum or the difference of the lengths, depending on whether the arrows have the same direction. Another operation that can be done with arrows is scaling: given any positive real number a, the arrow that has the same direction as v, but is dilated or shrunk by multiplying its length by a, is called multiplication of v by a. It is denoted av. When a is negative, av is defined as the arrow pointing in the opposite direction instead.

The following shows a few examples: if a = 2, the resulting vector aw has the same direction as w, but is stretched to the double length of w (right image below). Equivalently, 2w is the sum w + w. Moreover, (−1)v = −v has the opposite direction and the same length as v (blue vector pointing down in the right image).

Second example: ordered pairs of numbers

A second key example of a vector space is provided by pairs of real numbers x and y. (The order of the components x and y is significant, so such a pair is also called an ordered pair.) Such a pair is written as (x, y). The sum of two such pairs and multiplication of a pair with a number is defined as follows:

$${\displaystyle (x_{1},y_{1})+(x_{2},y_{2})=(x_{1}+x_{2},y_{1}+y_{2})}$$

and

$${\displaystyle a(x,y)=(ax,ay).}$$

The first example above reduces to this example, if an arrow is represented by a pair of Cartesian coordinates of its endpoint.

Coordinate space

The simplest example of a vector space over a field F is the field F itself (as it is an abelian group for addition, a part of the requirements to be a field), equipped with its addition (It becomes vector addition.) and multiplication (It becomes scalar multiplication.). More generally, all n-tuples (sequences of length n)

$${\displaystyle (a_{1},a_{2},\dots ,a_{n})}$$

of elements a_i of F form a vector space that is usually denoted Fⁿ and called a coordinate space.^[12] The case n = 1 is the above-mentioned simplest example, in which the field F is also regarded as a vector space over itself. The case F = R and n = 2 (so R²) was discussed in the introduction above.

Complex numbers and other field extensions

The set of complex numbers C, that is, numbers that can be written in the form x + iy for real numbers x and y where i is the imaginary unit, form a vector space over the reals with the usual addition and multiplication: (x + iy) + (a + ib) = (x + a) + i(y + b) and c ⋅ (x + iy) = (c ⋅ x) + i(c ⋅ y) for real numbers x, y, a, b and c. The various axioms of a vector space follow from the fact that the same rules hold for complex number arithmetic.

In fact, the example of complex numbers is essentially the same as (that is, it is isomorphic to) the vector space of ordered pairs of real numbers mentioned above: if we think of the complex number x + i y as representing the ordered pair (x, y) in the complex plane then we see that the rules for addition and scalar multiplication correspond exactly to those in the earlier example.

More generally, field extensions provide another class of examples of vector spaces, particularly in algebra and algebraic number theory: a field F containing a smaller field E is an E-vector space, by the given multiplication and addition operations of F.^[13] For example, the complex numbers are a vector space over R, and the field extension ${\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} (i{\sqrt {5}})}$ is a vector space over Q.

Function spaces

Addition of functions: the sum of the sine and the exponential function is ${\displaystyle \sin +\exp$ :\mathbb {R} \to \mathbb {R} } with ${\displaystyle (\sin +\exp )(x)=\sin(x)+\exp(x)}$.

Functions from any fixed set Ω to a field F also form vector spaces, by performing addition and scalar multiplication pointwise. That is, the sum of two functions f and g is the function ${\displaystyle (f+g)}$ given by

$${\displaystyle (f+g)(w)=f(w)+g(w),}$$

and similarly for multiplication. Such function spaces occur in many geometric situations, when Ω is the real line or an interval, or other subsets of R. Many notions in topology and analysis, such as continuity, integrability or differentiability are well-behaved with respect to linearity: sums and scalar multiples of functions possessing such a property still have that property.^[14] Therefore, the set of such functions are vector spaces, whose study belongs to functional analysis.

Linear equations

Systems of homogeneous linear equations are closely tied to vector spaces.^[15] For example, the solutions of

$${\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{9}&&a\,&&+\,3b\,&\,+&\,&c&\,=0\\4&&a\,&&+\,2b\,&\,+&\,2&c&\,=0\\\end{alignedat}}}$$

are given by triples with arbitrary ${\displaystyle a,}$ ${\displaystyle b=a/2,}$ and ${\displaystyle c=-5a/2.}$ They form a vector space: sums and scalar multiples of such triples still satisfy the same ratios of the three variables; thus they are solutions, too. Matrices can be used to condense multiple linear equations as above into one vector equation, namely

$${\displaystyle A\mathbf {x} =\mathbf {0} ,}$$

where ${\displaystyle A={\begin{bmatrix}1&3&1\\4&2&2\end{bmatrix}}}$ is the matrix containing the coefficients of the given equations, ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }$ is the vector ${\displaystyle (a,b,c),}$ ${\displaystyle A\mathbf {x} }$ denotes the matrix product, and ${\displaystyle \mathbf {0} =(0,0)}$ is the zero vector. In a similar vein, the solutions of homogeneous linear differential equations form vector spaces. For example,

$${\displaystyle f^{\prime \prime }(x)+2f^{\prime }(x)+f(x)=0}$$

yields ${\displaystyle f(x)=ae^{-x}+bxe^{-x},}$ where ${\displaystyle a}$ and ${\displaystyle b}$ are arbitrary constants, and ${\displaystyle e^{x}}$ is the natural exponential function.

Matrices

A typical matrix

Matrices are a useful notion to encode linear maps.^[23] They are written as a rectangular array of scalars as in the image at the right. Any m-by-n matrix ${\displaystyle A}$ gives rise to a linear map from Fⁿ to F^m, by the following

$${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =(x_{1},x_{2},\ldots ,x_{n})\mapsto \left(\sum _{j=1}^{n}a_{1j}x_{j},\sum _{j=1}^{n}a_{2j}x_{j},\ldots ,\sum _{j=1}^{n}a_{mj}x_{j}\right),}$$

where ${\displaystyle \sum }$ denotes summation, or, using the matrix multiplication of the matrix ${\displaystyle A}$ with the coordinate vector ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x}$ :}

$${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} \mapsto A\mathbf {x} .}$$

Moreover, after choosing bases of V and W, any linear map f : V → W is uniquely represented by a matrix via this assignment.^[24]

The volume of this parallelepiped is the absolute value of the determinant of the 3-by-3 matrix formed by the vectors r₁, r₂, and r₃.

The determinant det (A) of a square matrix A is a scalar that tells whether the associated map is an isomorphism or not: to be so it is sufficient and necessary that the determinant is nonzero.^[25] The linear transformation of Rⁿ corresponding to a real n-by-n matrix is orientation preserving if and only if its determinant is positive.

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

Endomorphisms, linear maps f : V → V, are particularly important since in this case vectors v can be compared with their image under f, f(v). Any nonzero vector v satisfying λv = f(v), where λ is a scalar, is called an eigenvector of f with eigenvalue λ.^{[nb 4][26]} Equivalently, v is an element of the kernel of the difference f − λ · Id (where Id is the identity map V → V). If V is finite-dimensional, this can be rephrased using determinants: f having eigenvalue λ is equivalent to

$${\displaystyle \det(f-\lambda \cdot \operatorname {Id} )=0.}$$

By spelling out the definition of the determinant, the expression on the left hand side can be seen to be a polynomial function in λ, called the characteristic polynomial of f.^[27] If the field F is large enough to contain a zero of this polynomial (which automatically happens for F algebraically closed, such as F = C) any linear map has at least one eigenvector. The vector space V may or may not possess an eigenbasis, a basis consisting of eigenvectors. This phenomenon is governed by the Jordan canonical form of the map.^{[28][nb 5]} The set of all eigenvectors corresponding to a particular eigenvalue of f forms a vector space known as the eigenspace corresponding to the eigenvalue (and f) in question. To achieve the spectral theorem, the corresponding statement in the infinite-dimensional case, the machinery of functional analysis is needed, see below.

Subspaces and quotient spaces

A line passing through the origin (blue, thick) in R³ is a linear subspace. It is the intersection of two planes (green and yellow).

A nonempty subset ${\displaystyle W}$ of a vector space ${\displaystyle V}$ that is closed under addition and scalar multiplication (and therefore contains the ${\displaystyle \mathbf {0} }$-vector of ${\displaystyle V}$) is called a linear subspace of ${\displaystyle V,}$ or simply a subspace of ${\displaystyle V,}$ when the ambient space is unambiguously a vector space.^{[29][nb 6]} Subspaces of ${\displaystyle V}$ are vector spaces (over the same field) in their own right. The intersection of all subspaces containing a given set ${\displaystyle S}$ of vectors is called its span, and it is the smallest subspace of ${\displaystyle V}$ containing the set ${\displaystyle S.}$Expressed in terms of elements, the span is the subspace consisting of all the linear combinations of elements of ${\displaystyle S.}$^[30]

A linear subspace of dimension 1 is a vector line. A linear subspace of dimension 2 is a vector plane. A linear subspace that contains all elements but one of a basis of the ambient space is a vector hyperplane. In a vector space of finite dimension ${\displaystyle n,}$ a vector hyperplane is thus a subspace of dimension ${\displaystyle n-1.}$

The counterpart to subspaces are quotient vector spaces.^[31] Given any subspace ${\displaystyle W\subseteq V,}$ the quotient space ${\displaystyle V/W}$ ("${\displaystyle V}$ modulo ${\displaystyle W}$") is defined as follows: as a set, it consists of ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} +W=\{\mathbf {v} +\mathbf {w}$ :\mathbf {w} \in W\},} where ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }$ is an arbitrary vector in ${\displaystyle V.}$ The sum of two such elements ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1}+W}$ and ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{2}+W}$ is ${\displaystyle \left(\mathbf {v} _{1}+\mathbf {v} _{2}\right)+W,}$ and scalar multiplication is given by ${\displaystyle a\cdot (\mathbf {v} +W)=(a\cdot \mathbf {v} )+W.}$ The key point in this definition is that ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1}+W=\mathbf {v} _{2}+W}$ if and only if the difference of ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1}}$ and ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{2}}$ lies in ${\displaystyle W.}$^{[nb 7]} This way, the quotient space "forgets" information that is contained in the subspace ${\displaystyle W.}$

The kernel ${\displaystyle \ker(f)}$ of a linear map ${\displaystyle f:V\to W}$ consists of vectors ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }$ that are mapped to ${\displaystyle \mathbf {0} }$ in ${\displaystyle W.}$^[32] The kernel and the image ${\displaystyle \operatorname {im} (f)=\{f(\mathbf {v} ):\mathbf {v} \in V\}}$ are subspaces of ${\displaystyle V}$ and ${\displaystyle W,}$ respectively.^[33] The existence of kernels and images is part of the statement that the category of vector spaces (over a fixed field ${\displaystyle F}$) is an abelian category, that is, a corpus of mathematical objects and structure-preserving maps between them (a category) that behaves much like the category of abelian groups.^[34] Because of this, many statements such as the first isomorphism theorem (also called rank–nullity theorem in matrix-related terms)

$${\displaystyle V/\ker(f)\;\equiv \;\operatorname {im} (f)}$$

and the second and third isomorphism theorem can be formulated and proven in a way very similar to the corresponding statements for groups.

An important example is the kernel of a linear map ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} \mapsto A\mathbf {x} }$ for some fixed matrix ${\displaystyle A,}$ as above. The kernel of this map is the subspace of vectors ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }$ such that ${\displaystyle A\mathbf {x} =\mathbf {0} ,}$ which is precisely the set of solutions to the system of homogeneous linear equations belonging to ${\displaystyle A.}$ This concept also extends to linear differential equations

$${\displaystyle a_{0}f+a_{1}{\frac {df}{dx}}+a_{2}{\frac {d^{2}f}{dx^{2}}}+\cdots +a_{n}{\frac {d^{n}f}{dx^{n}}}=0,}$$

where the coefficients ${\displaystyle a_{i}}$ are functions in ${\displaystyle x,}$ too. In the corresponding map

$${\displaystyle f\mapsto D(f)=\sum _{i=0}^{n}a_{i}{\frac {d^{i}f}{dx^{i}}},}$$

the derivatives of the function ${\displaystyle f}$ appear linearly (as opposed to ${\displaystyle f^{\prime \prime }(x)^{2},}$ for example). Since differentiation is a linear procedure (that is, ${\displaystyle (f+g)^{\prime }=f^{\prime }+g^{\prime }}$ and ${\displaystyle (c\cdot f)^{\prime }=c\cdot f^{\prime }}$ for a constant ${\displaystyle c}$) this assignment is linear, called a linear differential operator. In particular, the solutions to the differential equation ${\displaystyle D(f)=0}$ form a vector space (over R or C).

Direct product and direct sum

The direct product of vector spaces and the direct sum of vector spaces are two ways of combining an indexed family of vector spaces into a new vector space.

The direct product ${\displaystyle \textstyle {\prod _{i\in I}V_{i}}}$ of a family of vector spaces ${\displaystyle V_{i}}$ consists of the set of all tuples ${\displaystyle \left(\mathbf {v} _{i}\right)_{i\in I},}$ which specify for each index ${\displaystyle i}$ in some index set ${\displaystyle I}$ an element ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{i}}$ of ${\displaystyle V_{i}.}$^[35] Addition and scalar multiplication is performed componentwise. A variant of this construction is the direct sum ${\textstyle \bigoplus _{i\in I}V_{i}}$ (also called coproduct and denoted ${\textstyle \coprod _{i\in I}V_{i}}$), where only tuples with finitely many nonzero vectors are allowed. If the index set ${\displaystyle I}$ is finite, the two constructions agree, but in general they are different.

Tensor product

The tensor product ${\displaystyle V\otimes _{F}W,}$ or simply ${\displaystyle V\otimes W,}$ of two vector spaces ${\displaystyle V}$ and ${\displaystyle W}$ is one of the central notions of multilinear algebra which deals with extending notions such as linear maps to several variables. A map ${\displaystyle g:V\times W\to X}$ from the Cartesian product ${\displaystyle V\times W}$ is called bilinear if ${\displaystyle g}$ is linear in both variables ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }$ and ${\displaystyle \mathbf {w} .}$ That is to say, for fixed ${\displaystyle \mathbf {w} }$ the map ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} \mapsto g(\mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {w} )}$ is linear in the sense above and likewise for fixed ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} .}$

Commutative diagram depicting the universal property of the tensor product

The tensor product is a particular vector space that is a universal recipient of bilinear maps ${\displaystyle g,}$ as follows. It is defined as the vector space consisting of finite (formal) sums of symbols called tensors

$${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1}\otimes \mathbf {w} _{1}+\mathbf {v} _{2}\otimes \mathbf {w} _{2}+\cdots +\mathbf {v} _{n}\otimes \mathbf {w} _{n},}$$

subject to the rules^[36]

$${\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{6}a\cdot (\mathbf {v} \otimes \mathbf {w} )~&=~(a\cdot \mathbf {v} )\otimes \mathbf {w} ~=~\mathbf {v} \otimes (a\cdot \mathbf {w} ),&&~~{\text{ where }}a{\text{ is a scalar}}\\(\mathbf {v} _{1}+\mathbf {v} _{2})\otimes \mathbf {w} ~&=~\mathbf {v} _{1}\otimes \mathbf {w} +\mathbf {v} _{2}\otimes \mathbf {w} &&\\\mathbf {v} \otimes (\mathbf {w} _{1}+\mathbf {w} _{2})~&=~\mathbf {v} \otimes \mathbf {w} _{1}+\mathbf {v} \otimes \mathbf {w} _{2}.&&\\\end{alignedat}}}$$

These rules ensure that the map ${\displaystyle f}$ from the ${\displaystyle V\times W}$ to ${\displaystyle V\otimes W}$ that maps a tuple ${\displaystyle (\mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {w} )}$ to ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} \otimes \mathbf {w} }$ is bilinear. The universality states that given any vector space ${\displaystyle X}$ and any bilinear map ${\displaystyle g:V\times W\to X,}$ there exists a unique map ${\displaystyle u,}$ shown in the diagram with a dotted arrow, whose composition with ${\displaystyle f}$ equals ${\displaystyle g:}$ ${\displaystyle u(\mathbf {v} \otimes \mathbf {w} )=g(\mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {w} ).}$^[37] This is called the universal property of the tensor product, an instance of the method—much used in advanced abstract algebra—to indirectly define objects by specifying maps from or to this object.

Normed vector spaces and inner product spaces

"Measuring" vectors is done by specifying a norm, a datum which measures lengths of vectors, or by an inner product, which measures angles between vectors. Norms and inner products are denoted ${\displaystyle |\mathbf {v} |}$ and ${\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {w} \rangle ,}$ respectively. The datum of an inner product entails that lengths of vectors can be defined too, by defining the associated norm ${\textstyle |\mathbf {v} |:={\sqrt {\langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle }}.}$ Vector spaces endowed with such data are known as normed vector spaces and inner product spaces, respectively.^[40]

Coordinate space ${\displaystyle F^{n}}$ can be equipped with the standard dot product:

$${\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {x} ,\mathbf {y} \rangle =\mathbf {x} \cdot \mathbf {y} =x_{1}y_{1}+\cdots +x_{n}y_{n}.}$$

In ${\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{2},}$ this reflects the common notion of the angle between two vectors ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }$ and ${\displaystyle \mathbf {y} ,}$ by the law of cosines:

$${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} \cdot \mathbf {y} =\cos \left(\angle (\mathbf {x} ,\mathbf {y} )\right)\cdot |\mathbf {x} |\cdot |\mathbf {y} |.}$$

Because of this, two vectors satisfying ${\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {x} ,\mathbf {y} \rangle =0}$ are called orthogonal. An important variant of the standard dot product is used in Minkowski space: ${\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{4}}$ endowed with the Lorentz product^[41]

$${\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {x} |\mathbf {y} \rangle =x_{1}y_{1}+x_{2}y_{2}+x_{3}y_{3}-x_{4}y_{4}.}$$

In contrast to the standard dot product, it is not positive definite: ${\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {x} |\mathbf {x} \rangle }$ also takes negative values, for example, for ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =(0,0,0,1).}$ Singling out the fourth coordinate—corresponding to time, as opposed to three space-dimensions—makes it useful for the mathematical treatment of special relativity.

Topological vector spaces

Convergence questions are treated by considering vector spaces ${\displaystyle V}$ carrying a compatible topology, a structure that allows one to talk about elements being close to each other.^[42][43] Compatible here means that addition and scalar multiplication have to be continuous maps. Roughly, if ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }$ and ${\displaystyle \mathbf {y} }$ in ${\displaystyle V,}$ and ${\displaystyle a}$ in ${\displaystyle F}$ vary by a bounded amount, then so do ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} +\mathbf {y} }$ and ${\displaystyle a\mathbf {x} .}$^{[nb 8]} To make sense of specifying the amount a scalar changes, the field ${\displaystyle F}$ also has to carry a topology in this context; a common choice are the reals or the complex numbers.

In such topological vector spaces one can consider series of vectors. The infinite sum

$${\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{\infty }f_{i}~=~\lim _{n\to \infty }f_{1}+\cdots +f_{n}}$$

denotes the limit of the corresponding finite partial sums of the sequence ${\displaystyle f_{1},f_{2},\ldots }$ of elements of ${\displaystyle V.}$ For example, the ${\displaystyle f_{i}}$ could be (real or complex) functions belonging to some function space ${\displaystyle V,}$ in which case the series is a function series. The mode of convergence of the series depends on the topology imposed on the function space. In such cases, pointwise convergence and uniform convergence are two prominent examples.

Unit "spheres" in ${\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{2}}$ consist of plane vectors of norm 1. Depicted are the unit spheres in different ${\displaystyle p}$-norms, for ${\displaystyle p=1,2,}$ and ${\displaystyle \infty .}$ The bigger diamond depicts points of 1-norm equal to 2.

A way to ensure the existence of limits of certain infinite series is to restrict attention to spaces where any Cauchy sequence has a limit; such a vector space is called complete. Roughly, a vector space is complete provided that it contains all necessary limits. For example, the vector space of polynomials on the unit interval ${\displaystyle [0,1],}$ equipped with the topology of uniform convergence is not complete because any continuous function on ${\displaystyle [0,1]}$ can be uniformly approximated by a sequence of polynomials, by the Weierstrass approximation theorem.^[44] In contrast, the space of all continuous functions on ${\displaystyle [0,1]}$ with the same topology is complete.^[45] A norm gives rise to a topology by defining that a sequence of vectors ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{n}}$ converges to ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }$ if and only if

$${\displaystyle \lim _{n\to \infty }|\mathbf {v} _{n}-\mathbf {v} |=0.}$$

Banach and Hilbert spaces are complete topological vector spaces whose topologies are given, respectively, by a norm and an inner product. Their study—a key piece of functional analysis—focuses on infinite-dimensional vector spaces, since all norms on finite-dimensional topological vector spaces give rise to the same notion of convergence.^[46] The image at the right shows the equivalence of the ${\displaystyle 1}$-norm and ${\displaystyle \infty }$-norm on ${\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{2}:}$ as the unit "balls" enclose each other, a sequence converges to zero in one norm if and only if it so does in the other norm. In the infinite-dimensional case, however, there will generally be inequivalent topologies, which makes the study of topological vector spaces richer than that of vector spaces without additional data.

From a conceptual point of view, all notions related to topological vector spaces should match the topology. For example, instead of considering all linear maps (also called functionals) ${\displaystyle V\to W,}$ maps between topological vector spaces are required to be continuous.^[47] In particular, the (topological) dual space ${\displaystyle V^{*}}$ consists of continuous functionals ${\displaystyle V\to \mathbf {R} }$ (or to ${\displaystyle \mathbf {C} }$). The fundamental Hahn–Banach theorem is concerned with separating subspaces of appropriate topological vector spaces by continuous functionals.^[48]

Banach spaces

Main article: Banach space

Banach spaces, introduced by Stefan Banach, are complete normed vector spaces.^[49]

A first example is the vector space ${\displaystyle \ell ^{p}}$ consisting of infinite vectors with real entries ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =\left(x_{1},x_{2},\ldots ,x_{n},\ldots \right)}$ whose ${\displaystyle p}$-norm ${\displaystyle (1\leq p\leq \infty )}$ given by

$${\displaystyle \|\mathbf {x} \|_{\infty }:=\sup _{i}|x_{i}|\qquad {\text{ for }}p=\infty ,{\text{ and }}}$$

$${\displaystyle \|\mathbf {x} \|_{p}:=\left(\sum _{i}|x_{i}|^{p}\right)^{\frac {1}{p}}\qquad {\text{ for }}p<\infty .}$$

The topologies on the infinite-dimensional space ${\displaystyle \ell ^{p}}$ are inequivalent for different ${\displaystyle p.}$ For example, the sequence of vectors ${\displaystyle \mathbf {x} _{n}=\left(2^{-n},2^{-n},\ldots ,2^{-n},0,0,\ldots \right),}$ in which the first ${\displaystyle 2^{n}}$ components are ${\displaystyle 2^{-n}}$ and the following ones are ${\displaystyle 0,}$ converges to the zero vector for ${\displaystyle p=\infty ,}$ but does not for ${\displaystyle p=1:}$

$${\displaystyle \|\mathbf {x} _{n}\|_{\infty }=\sup(2^{-n},0)=2^{-n}\to 0,}$$

but

$${\displaystyle \|\mathbf {x} _{n}\|_{1}=\sum _{i=1}^{2^{n}}2^{-n}=2^{n}\cdot 2^{-n}=1.}$$

More generally than sequences of real numbers, functions ${\displaystyle f:\Omega \to \mathbb {R} }$ are endowed with a norm that replaces the above sum by the Lebesgue integral

$${\displaystyle \|f\|_{p}:=\left(\int _{\Omega }|f(x)|^{p}\,{d\mu (x)}\right)^{\frac {1}{p}}.}$$

The space of integrable functions on a given domain ${\displaystyle \Omega }$ (for example an interval) satisfying ${\displaystyle \|f\|_{p}<\infty ,}$ and equipped with this norm are called Lebesgue spaces, denoted ${\displaystyle L^{\;\!p}(\Omega ).}$^{[nb 9]}

These spaces are complete.^[50] (If one uses the Riemann integral instead, the space is not complete, which may be seen as a justification for Lebesgue's integration theory.^{[nb 10]}) Concretely this means that for any sequence of Lebesgue-integrable functions ${\displaystyle f_{1},f_{2},\ldots ,f_{n},\ldots }$ with ${\displaystyle \|f_{n}\|_{p}<\infty ,}$ satisfying the condition

$${\displaystyle \lim _{k,\ n\to \infty }\int _{\Omega }\left|f_{k}(x)-f_{n}(x)\right|^{p}\,{d\mu (x)}=0}$$

there exists a function ${\displaystyle f(x)}$ belonging to the vector space ${\displaystyle L^{\;\!p}(\Omega )}$ such that

$${\displaystyle \lim _{k\to \infty }\int _{\Omega }\left|f(x)-f_{k}(x)\right|^{p}\,{d\mu (x)}=0.}$$

Imposing boundedness conditions not only on the function, but also on its derivatives leads to Sobolev spaces.^[51]

Hilbert spaces

Main article: Hilbert space

The succeeding snapshots show summation of 1 to 5 terms in approximating a periodic function (blue) by finite sum of sine functions (red).

Complete inner product spaces are known as Hilbert spaces, in honor of David Hilbert.^[52] The Hilbert space ${\displaystyle L^{2}(\Omega ),}$ with inner product given by

$${\displaystyle \langle f\ ,\ g\rangle =\int _{\Omega }f(x){\overline {g(x)}}\,dx,}$$

where ${\displaystyle {\overline {g(x)}}}$ denotes the complex conjugate of ${\displaystyle g(x),}$^{[53][nb 11]} is a key case.

By definition, in a Hilbert space any Cauchy sequence converges to a limit. Conversely, finding a sequence of functions ${\displaystyle f_{n}}$ with desirable properties that approximates a given limit function, is equally crucial. Early analysis, in the guise of the Taylor approximation, established an approximation of differentiable functions ${\displaystyle f}$ by polynomials.^[54] By the Stone–Weierstrass theorem, every continuous function on ${\displaystyle [a,b]}$ can be approximated as closely as desired by a polynomial.^[55] A similar approximation technique by trigonometric functions is commonly called Fourier expansion, and is much applied in engineering, see below. More generally, and more conceptually, the theorem yields a simple description of what "basic functions", or, in abstract Hilbert spaces, what basic vectors suffice to generate a Hilbert space ${\displaystyle H,}$ in the sense that the closure of their span (that is, finite linear combinations and limits of those) is the whole space. Such a set of functions is called a basis of ${\displaystyle H,}$ its cardinality is known as the Hilbert space dimension.^{[nb 12]} Not only does the theorem exhibit suitable basis functions as sufficient for approximation purposes, but also together with the Gram–Schmidt process, it enables one to construct a basis of orthogonal vectors.^[56] Such orthogonal bases are the Hilbert space generalization of the coordinate axes in finite-dimensional Euclidean space.

The solutions to various differential equations can be interpreted in terms of Hilbert spaces. For example, a great many fields in physics and engineering lead to such equations and frequently solutions with particular physical properties are used as basis functions, often orthogonal.^[57] As an example from physics, the time-dependent Schrödinger equation in quantum mechanics describes the change of physical properties in time by means of a partial differential equation, whose solutions are called wavefunctions.^[58] Definite values for physical properties such as energy, or momentum, correspond to eigenvalues of a certain (linear) differential operator and the associated wavefunctions are called eigenstates. The spectral theorem decomposes a linear compact operator acting on functions in terms of these eigenfunctions and their eigenvalues.^[59]

Algebras over fields

A hyperbola, given by the equation ${\displaystyle x\cdot y=1.}$ The coordinate ring of functions on this hyperbola is given by ${\displaystyle \mathbf {R} [x,y]/(x\cdot y-1),}$ an infinite-dimensional vector space over ${\displaystyle \mathbf {R} .}$

General vector spaces do not possess a multiplication between vectors. A vector space equipped with an additional bilinear operator defining the multiplication of two vectors is an algebra over a field.^[60] Many algebras stem from functions on some geometrical object: since functions with values in a given field can be multiplied pointwise, these entities form algebras. The Stone–Weierstrass theorem, for example, relies on Banach algebras which are both Banach spaces and algebras.

Commutative algebra makes great use of rings of polynomials in one or several variables, introduced above. Their multiplication is both commutative and associative. These rings and their quotients form the basis of algebraic geometry, because they are rings of functions of algebraic geometric objects.^[61]

Another crucial example are Lie algebras, which are neither commutative nor associative, but the failure to be so is limited by the constraints (${\displaystyle [x,y]}$ denotes the product of ${\displaystyle x}$ and ${\displaystyle y}$):

• ${\displaystyle [x,y]=-[y,x]}$ (anticommutativity), and
• ${\displaystyle [x,[y,z]]+[y,[z,x]]+[z,[x,y]]=0}$ (Jacobi identity).^[62]

Examples include the vector space of ${\displaystyle n}$-by-${\displaystyle n}$ matrices, with ${\displaystyle [x,y]=xy-yx,}$ the commutator of two matrices, and ${\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{3},}$ endowed with the cross product.

The tensor algebra ${\displaystyle \operatorname {T} (V)}$ is a formal way of adding products to any vector space ${\displaystyle V}$ to obtain an algebra.^[63] As a vector space, it is spanned by symbols, called simple tensors

$${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1}\otimes \mathbf {v} _{2}\otimes \cdots \otimes \mathbf {v} _{n},}$$

where the degree ${\displaystyle n}$ varies. The multiplication is given by concatenating such symbols, imposing the distributive law under addition, and requiring that scalar multiplication commute with the tensor product ⊗, much the same way as with the tensor product of two vector spaces introduced above. In general, there are no relations between ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1}\otimes \mathbf {v} _{2}}$ and ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{2}\otimes \mathbf {v} _{1}.}$ Forcing two such elements to be equal leads to the symmetric algebra, whereas forcing ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1}\otimes \mathbf {v} _{2}=-\mathbf {v} _{2}\otimes \mathbf {v} _{1}}$ yields the exterior algebra.^[64]

When a field, ${\displaystyle F}$ is explicitly stated, a common term used is ${\displaystyle F}$-algebra.

Vector bundles

A Möbius strip. Locally, it looks like U × R.

A vector bundle is a family of vector spaces parametrized continuously by a topological space X.^[65] More precisely, a vector bundle over X is a topological space E equipped with a continuous map

$${\displaystyle \pi :E\to X}$$

such that for every x in X, the fiber π⁻¹(x) is a vector space. The case dim V = 1 is called a line bundle. For any vector space V, the projection X × V → X makes the product X × V into a "trivial" vector bundle. Vector bundles over X are required to be locally a product of X and some (fixed) vector space V: for every x in X, there is a neighborhood U of x such that the restriction of π to π⁻¹(U) is isomorphic^{[nb 13]} to the trivial bundle U × V → U. Despite their locally trivial character, vector bundles may (depending on the shape of the underlying space X) be "twisted" in the large (that is, the bundle need not be (globally isomorphic to) the trivial bundle X × V). For example, the Möbius strip can be seen as a line bundle over the circle S¹ (by identifying open intervals with the real line). It is, however, different from the cylinder S¹ × R, because the latter is orientable whereas the former is not.^[66]

Properties of certain vector bundles provide information about the underlying topological space. For example, the tangent bundle consists of the collection of tangent spaces parametrized by the points of a differentiable manifold. The tangent bundle of the circle S¹ is globally isomorphic to S¹ × R, since there is a global nonzero vector field on S¹.^{[nb 14]} In contrast, by the hairy ball theorem, there is no (tangent) vector field on the 2-sphere S² which is everywhere nonzero.^[67] K-theory studies the isomorphism classes of all vector bundles over some topological space.^[68] In addition to deepening topological and geometrical insight, it has purely algebraic consequences, such as the classification of finite-dimensional real division algebras: R, C, the quaternions H and the octonions O.

The cotangent bundle of a differentiable manifold consists, at every point of the manifold, of the dual of the tangent space, the cotangent space. Sections of that bundle are known as differential one-forms.

Modules

Modules are to rings what vector spaces are to fields: the same axioms, applied to a ring R instead of a field F, yield modules.^[69] The theory of modules, compared to that of vector spaces, is complicated by the presence of ring elements that do not have multiplicative inverses. For example, modules need not have bases, as the Z-module (that is, abelian group) Z/2Z shows; those modules that do (including all vector spaces) are known as free modules. Nevertheless, a vector space can be compactly defined as a module over a ring which is a field, with the elements being called vectors. Some authors use the term vector space to mean modules over a division ring.^[70] The algebro-geometric interpretation of commutative rings via their spectrum allows the development of concepts such as locally free modules, the algebraic counterpart to vector bundles.

Affine and projective spaces

An affine plane (light blue) in R³. It is a two-dimensional subspace shifted by a vector x (red).

Roughly, affine spaces are vector spaces whose origins are not specified.^[71] More precisely, an affine space is a set with a free transitive vector space action. In particular, a vector space is an affine space over itself, by the map

$${\displaystyle V\times V\to W,\;(\mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {a} )\mapsto \mathbf {a} +\mathbf {v} .}$$

If W is a vector space, then an affine subspace is a subset of W obtained by translating a linear subspace V by a fixed vector x ∈ W; this space is denoted by x + V (it is a coset of V in W) and consists of all vectors of the form x + v for v ∈ V. An important example is the space of solutions of a system of inhomogeneous linear equations

$${\displaystyle A\mathbf {v} =\mathbf {b} }$$

generalizing the homogeneous case above, which can be found by setting ${\displaystyle \mathbf {b} =\mathbf {0} }$ in this equation.^[72] The space of solutions is the affine subspace x + V where x is a particular solution of the equation, and V is the space of solutions of the homogeneous equation (the nullspace of A).

The set of one-dimensional subspaces of a fixed finite-dimensional vector space V is known as projective space; it may be used to formalize the idea of parallel lines intersecting at infinity.^[73] Grassmannians and flag manifolds generalize this by parametrizing linear subspaces of fixed dimension k and flags of subspaces, respectively.

Algebra

• Artin, Michael (1991), Algebra, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-89871-510-1
• Blass, Andreas (1984), "Existence of bases implies the axiom of choice" (PDF), Axiomatic set theory (Boulder, Colorado, 1983), Contemporary Mathematics, vol. 31, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, pp. 31–33, MR 0763890
• Brown, William A. (1991), Matrices and vector spaces, New York: M. Dekker, ISBN 978-0-8247-8419-5
• Lang, Serge (1987), Linear algebra, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-96412-6
• Lang, Serge (2002), Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 211 (Revised third ed.), New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-95385-4, MR 1878556
• Mac Lane, Saunders (1999), Algebra (3rd ed.), American Mathematical Soc., pp. 193–222, ISBN 978-0-8218-1646-2
• Meyer, Carl D. (2000), Matrix Analysis and Applied Linear Algebra, SIAM, ISBN 978-0-89871-454-8
• Roman, Steven (2005), Advanced Linear Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 135 (2nd ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-24766-3
• Spindler, Karlheinz (1993), Abstract Algebra with Applications: Volume 1: Vector spaces and groups, CRC, ISBN 978-0-8247-9144-5
• van der Waerden, Bartel Leendert (1993), Algebra (in German) (9th ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-56799-8

Analysis

• Bourbaki, Nicolas (1987), Topological vector spaces, Elements of mathematics, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-13627-9
• Bourbaki, Nicolas (2004), Integration I, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-41129-1
• Braun, Martin (1993), Differential equations and their applications: an introduction to applied mathematics, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-97894-9
• BSE-3 (2001) [1994], "Tangent plane", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press
• Choquet, Gustave (1966), Topology, Boston, MA: Academic Press
• Dennery, Philippe; Krzywicki, Andre (1996), Mathematics for Physicists, Courier Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-69193-0
• Dudley, Richard M. (1989), Real analysis and probability, The Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole Mathematics Series, Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole Advanced Books & Software, ISBN 978-0-534-10050-6
• Dunham, William (2005), The Calculus Gallery, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-09565-3
• Evans, Lawrence C. (1998), Partial differential equations, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-0772-9
• Folland, Gerald B. (1992), Fourier Analysis and Its Applications, Brooks-Cole, ISBN 978-0-534-17094-3
• Gasquet, Claude; Witomski, Patrick (1999), Fourier Analysis and Applications: Filtering, Numerical Computation, Wavelets, Texts in Applied Mathematics, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-98485-8
• Ifeachor, Emmanuel C.; Jervis, Barrie W. (2001), Digital Signal Processing: A Practical Approach (2nd ed.), Harlow, Essex, England: Prentice-Hall (published 2002), ISBN 978-0-201-59619-9
• Krantz, Steven G. (1999), A Panorama of Harmonic Analysis, Carus Mathematical Monographs, Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of America, ISBN 978-0-88385-031-2
• Kreyszig, Erwin (1988), Advanced Engineering Mathematics (6th ed.), New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-85824-9
• Kreyszig, Erwin (1989), Introductory functional analysis with applications, Wiley Classics Library, New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-50459-7, MR 0992618
• Lang, Serge (1983), Real analysis, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-14179-5
• Lang, Serge (1993), Real and functional analysis, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-94001-4
• Loomis, Lynn H. (2011) [1953], An introduction to abstract harmonic analysis, Dover, hdl:2027/uc1.b4250788, ISBN 978-0-486-48123-4, OCLC 702357363
• Narici, Lawrence; Beckenstein, Edward (2011). Topological Vector Spaces. Pure and applied mathematics (Second ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1584888666. OCLC 144216834.
• Schaefer, Helmut H.; Wolff, Manfred P. (1999). Topological Vector Spaces. GTM. Vol. 8 (Second ed.). New York, NY: Springer New York Imprint Springer. ISBN 978-1-4612-7155-0. OCLC 840278135.
• Treves, François (1967), Topological vector spaces, distributions and kernels, Boston, MA: Academic Press

Historical references

• Banach, Stefan (1922), "Sur les opérations dans les ensembles abstraits et leur application aux équations intégrales (On operations in abstract sets and their application to integral equations)" (PDF), Fundamenta Mathematicae (in French), 3: 133–181, doi:10.4064/fm-3-1-133-181, ISSN 0016-2736
• Bolzano, Bernard (1804), Betrachtungen über einige Gegenstände der Elementargeometrie (Considerations of some aspects of elementary geometry) (in German)
• Bellavitis, Giuso (1833), "Sopra alcune applicazioni di un nuovo metodo di geometria analitica", Il poligrafo giornale di scienze, lettre ed arti, Verona, 13: 53–61.
• Bourbaki, Nicolas (1969), Éléments d'histoire des mathématiques (Elements of history of mathematics) (in French), Paris: Hermann
• Dorier, Jean-Luc (1995), "A general outline of the genesis of vector space theory", Historia Mathematica, 22 (3): 227–261, doi:10.1006/hmat.1995.1024, MR 1347828
• Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph (1822), Théorie analytique de la chaleur (in French), Chez Firmin Didot, père et fils
• Grassmann, Hermann (1844), Die Lineale Ausdehnungslehre - Ein neuer Zweig der Mathematik (in German), O. Wigand, reprint: Grassmann, Hermann (2000), Kannenberg, L.C. (ed.), Extension Theory, translated by Kannenberg, Lloyd C., Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-2031-5
• Hamilton, William Rowan (1853), Lectures on Quaternions, Royal Irish Academy
• Möbius, August Ferdinand (1827), Der Barycentrische Calcul : ein neues Hülfsmittel zur analytischen Behandlung der Geometrie (Barycentric calculus: a new utility for an analytic treatment of geometry) (in German), archived from the original on 2006-11-23
• Moore, Gregory H. (1995), "The axiomatization of linear algebra: 1875–1940", Historia Mathematica, 22 (3): 262–303, doi:10.1006/hmat.1995.1025
• Peano, Giuseppe (1888), Calcolo Geometrico secondo l'Ausdehnungslehre di H. Grassmann preceduto dalle Operazioni della Logica Deduttiva (in Italian), Turin{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Peano, G. (1901) Formulario mathematico: vct axioms via Internet Archive

Further references

• Ashcroft, Neil; Mermin, N. David (1976), Solid State Physics, Toronto: Thomson Learning, ISBN 978-0-03-083993-1
• Atiyah, Michael Francis (1989), K-theory, Advanced Book Classics (2nd ed.), Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-09394-0, MR 1043170
• Bourbaki, Nicolas (1998), Elements of Mathematics : Algebra I Chapters 1-3, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-64243-5
• Bourbaki, Nicolas (1989), General Topology. Chapters 1-4, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-64241-1
• Coxeter, Harold Scott MacDonald (1987), Projective Geometry (2nd ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-96532-1
• Eisenberg, Murray; Guy, Robert (1979), "A proof of the hairy ball theorem", The American Mathematical Monthly, 86 (7): 572–574, doi:10.2307/2320587, JSTOR 2320587
• Eisenbud, David (1995), Commutative algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 150, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-94269-8, MR 1322960
• Goldrei, Derek (1996), Classic Set Theory: A guided independent study (1st ed.), London: Chapman and Hall, ISBN 978-0-412-60610-6
• Griffiths, David J. (1995), Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-124405-4
• Halmos, Paul R. (1974), Finite-dimensional vector spaces, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-90093-3
• Halpern, James D. (Jun 1966), "Bases in Vector Spaces and the Axiom of Choice", Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society, 17 (3): 670–673, doi:10.2307/2035388, JSTOR 2035388
• Hughes-Hallett, Deborah; McCallum, William G.; Gleason, Andrew M. (2013), Calculus : Single and Multivariable (6 ed.), John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0470-88861-2
• Husemoller, Dale (1994), Fibre Bundles (3rd ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-94087-8
• Jost, Jürgen (2005), Riemannian Geometry and Geometric Analysis (4th ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-25907-7
• Kreyszig, Erwin (1991), Differential geometry, New York: Dover Publications, pp. xiv+352, ISBN 978-0-486-66721-8
• Kreyszig, Erwin (1999), Advanced Engineering Mathematics (8th ed.), New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-15496-9
• Luenberger, David (1997), Optimization by vector space methods, New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-18117-0
• Mac Lane, Saunders (1998), Categories for the Working Mathematician (2nd ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-98403-2
• Misner, Charles W.; Thorne, Kip; Wheeler, John Archibald (1973), Gravitation, W. H. Freeman, ISBN 978-0-7167-0344-0
• Naber, Gregory L. (2003), The geometry of Minkowski spacetime, New York: Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-43235-9, MR 2044239
• Schönhage, A.; Strassen, Volker (1971), "Schnelle Multiplikation großer Zahlen (Fast multiplication of big numbers)", Computing (in German), 7 (3–4): 281–292, doi:10.1007/bf02242355, ISSN 0010-485X, S2CID 9738629
• Spivak, Michael (1999), A Comprehensive Introduction to Differential Geometry (Volume Two), Houston, TX: Publish or Perish
• Stewart, Ian (1975), Galois Theory, Chapman and Hall Mathematics Series, London: Chapman and Hall, ISBN 978-0-412-10800-6
• Varadarajan, V. S. (1974), Lie groups, Lie algebras, and their representations, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-535732-3
• Wallace, G.K. (Feb 1992), "The JPEG still picture compression standard" (PDF), IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, 38 (1): xviii–xxxiv, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.318.4292, doi:10.1109/30.125072, ISSN 0098-3063, archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-01-13, retrieved 2017-10-25
• Weibel, Charles A. (1994). An introduction to homological algebra. Cambridge Studies in Advanced Mathematics. Vol. 38. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-55987-4. MR 1269324. OCLC 36131259.