Chinese
Sinitic
Geographic
distribution		Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia
Linguistic classificationSino-Tibetan
Early forms
Subdivisions
ISO 639-5zhx
Linguasphere79-AAA
Glottologsini1245
Primary branches of Chinese according to the Language Atlas of China.[3] The Mandarin area extends into Yunnan and Xinjiang (not shown).
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese汉语
Traditional Chinese漢語
Hanyu PinyinHànyǔ
Literal meaningHan language

There are hundreds of local Chinese language varieties[lower-alpha 2] forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, many of which are not mutually intelligible. Variation is particularly strong in the more mountainous southeast part of mainland China. The varieties are typically classified into several groups: Mandarin, Wu, Min, Xiang, Gan, Jin, Hakka and Yue, though some varieties remain unclassified. These groups are neither clades nor individual languages defined by mutual intelligibility, but reflect common phonological developments from Middle Chinese.

Chinese varieties have the greatest differences in their phonology, and to a lesser extent in vocabulary and syntax. Southern varieties tend to have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, but more often preserve the Middle Chinese final consonants. All have phonemic tones, with northern varieties tending to have fewer distinctions than southern ones. Many have tone sandhi, with the most complex patterns in the coastal area from Zhejiang to eastern Guangdong.

Standard Chinese takes its phonology from the Beijing dialect, with vocabulary from the Mandarin group and grammar based on literature in the modern written vernacular. It is one of the official languages of China and one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Standard Chinese has become a pluricentric language, with Taiwanese Mandarin being one of the official languages of Taiwan and Standard Singaporean Mandarin one of the four official languages of Singapore.[7][8]

History

At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, a form of Chinese was spoken in a compact area around the lower Wei River and middle Yellow River. From there it expanded eastwards across the North China Plain to Shandong and then south into the valley of the Yangtze River and beyond to the hills of south China. As the language spread, it replaced formerly dominant languages in those areas, and regional differences grew.[9] Simultaneously, especially in periods of political unity, there was a tendency to promote a central standard to facilitate communication between people from different regions.[10]

The first evidence of dialectal variation is found in texts from the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BC). At that time, the Zhou royal domain, though no longer politically powerful, still defined standard speech.[9] The Fangyan (early 1st century AD) is devoted to differences in vocabulary between regions.[11] Commentaries from the Eastern Han period (first two centuries AD) contain much evidence of local differences in pronunciation. The Qieyun rime dictionary (601 AD) noted wide variation in pronunciation between regions, and set out to define a standard pronunciation for reading the classics.[12] This standard, known as Middle Chinese, is believed to be a diasystem based on the reading traditions of northern and southern capitals.[13]

The North China Plain provided few barriers to migration, leading to relative linguistic homogeneity over a wide area in northern China. In contrast, the mountains and rivers of southern China have spawned the other six major groups of Chinese languages, with great internal diversity, particularly in Fujian.[14][15]

Standard Chinese

Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people spoke only their local language. As a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as Guānhuà (官話/官话, literally 'speech of officials'). Knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career, but it was never formally defined.[16]

In the early years of the Republic of China, Literary Chinese was replaced as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on northern dialects. In the 1930s a standard national language was adopted, with its pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect, but with vocabulary also drawn from other Mandarin varieties and its grammar based on literature in the modern written vernacular.[17] It is the official spoken language of the People's Republic of China and of the Republic of China (Taiwan), and one of the official languages of Singapore.[18] Standard Chinese has become a pluricentric language, with some differences in pronunciation and vocabulary between the three forms.[19][20]

Standard Chinese now dominates public life in mainland China, and is much more widely studied than any other variety of Chinese.[21] Outside China and Taiwan, the only varieties of Chinese commonly taught in university courses are Standard Mandarin and Cantonese.[22]

Comparison with Europe

Chinese has been likened to the Romance languages of Europe, the modern descendants of Latin. In both cases, the ancestral language was spread by imperial expansion over substrate languages 2000 years ago, by the Qin–Han empire in China and the Roman Empire in Europe. In Western Europe, Medieval Latin remained the standard for scholarly and administrative writing for centuries, and influenced local varieties, as did Literary Chinese in China. In both Europe and China, local forms of speech diverged from the written standard and from each other, producing extensive dialect continua, with widely separated varieties being mutually unintelligible.[22][23]

On the other hand, there are major differences. In China, political unity was restored in the late 6th century (by the Sui dynasty) and has persisted (with relatively brief interludes of division) until the present day. Meanwhile, Europe remained fragmented and developed numerous independent states. Vernacular writing, facilitated by the alphabet, supplanted Latin, and these states developed their own standard languages. In China, however, Literary Chinese maintained its monopoly on formal writing until the start of the 20th century. The morphosyllabic writing, read with varying local pronunciations, continued to serve as a source of vocabulary and idioms for the local varieties. The new national standard of written vernacular Chinese, the counterpart of spoken Standard Chinese, is also used as a literary form by literate speakers of all varieties.[24][25]

Classification

Dialectologist Jerry Norman estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese.[26] These varieties form a dialect continuum, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, although there are also some sharp boundaries.[27]

However, the rate of change in mutual intelligibility varies immensely depending on region. For example, the varieties of Mandarin spoken in all three northeastern Chinese provinces are mutually intelligible, but in the province of Fujian, where Min varieties predominate, the speech of neighbouring counties or even villages may be mutually unintelligible.[28]

Dialect groups

Proportions of first-language speakers[29]

  Mandarin (65.7%)
  Min (6.2%)
  Wu (6.1%)
  Yue (5.6%)
  Jin (5.2%)
  Gan (3.9%)
  Hakka (3.5%)
  Xiang (3.0%)
  Huizhou (0.3%)
  Pinghua, others (0.6%)

Classifications of Chinese varieties in the late 19th century and early 20th century were based on impressionistic criteria. They often followed river systems, which were historically the main routes of migration and communication in southern China.[30] The first scientific classifications, based primarily on the evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials, were produced by Wang Li in 1936 and Li Fang-Kuei in 1937, with minor modifications by other linguists since.[31] The conventionally accepted set of seven dialect groups first appeared in the second edition of Yuan Jiahua's dialectology handbook (1961):[32][33]

Mandarin
This is the group spoken in northern and southwestern China and has by far the most speakers. This group includes the Beijing dialect, which forms the basis for Standard Chinese, called Putonghua or Guoyu in Chinese, and often also translated as "Mandarin" or simply "Chinese". In addition, the Dungan language of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan is a Mandarin variety written in the Cyrillic script.
Wu
These varieties are spoken in Shanghai, most of Zhejiang and the southern parts of Jiangsu and Anhui. The group comprises hundreds of distinct spoken forms, many of which are not mutually intelligible. The Suzhou dialect is usually taken as representative, because Shanghainese features several atypical innovations.[34] Wu varieties are distinguished by their retention of voiced or murmured obstruent initials (stops, affricates and fricatives).[35]
Gan
These varieties are spoken in Jiangxi and neighbouring areas. The Nanchang dialect is taken as representative. In the past, Gan was viewed as closely related to Hakka because of the way Middle Chinese voiced initials became voiceless aspirated initials as in Hakka, and were hence called by the umbrella term "Hakka–Gan dialects".[36][37]
Xiang
The Xiang varieties are spoken in Hunan and southern Hubei. The New Xiang varieties, represented by the Changsha dialect, have been significantly influenced by Southwest Mandarin, whereas Old Xiang varieties, represented by the Shuangfeng dialect, retain features such as voiced initials.[38]
Min
These varieties originated in the mountainous terrain of Fujian and eastern Guangdong, and form the only branch of Chinese that cannot be directly derived from Middle Chinese. It is also the most diverse, with many of the varieties used in neighbouring counties—and, in the mountains of western Fujian, even in adjacent villages—being mutually unintelligible.[28] Early classifications divided Min into Northern and Southern subgroups, but a survey in the early 1960s found that the primary split was between inland and coastal groups.[39][40] Varieties from the coastal region around Xiamen have spread to Southeast Asia, where they are known as Hokkien (named from a dialectical pronunciation of "Fujian"), and Taiwan, where they are known as Taiwanese.[41] Other offshoots of Min are found in Hainan and the Leizhou Peninsula, with smaller communities throughout southern China.[40]
Hakka
The Hakka (literally "guest families") are a group of Han Chinese living in the hills of northeastern Guangdong, southwestern Fujian and many other parts of southern China, as well as Taiwan and parts of Southeast Asia such as Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Meixian dialect is the prestige form.[42] Most Hakka varieties retain the full complement of nasal endings, -m -n -ŋ and stop endings -p -t -k, though there is a tendency for Middle Chinese velar codas -ŋ and -k to yield dental codas -n and -t after front vowels.[43]
Yue
These varieties are spoken in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong and Macau, and have been carried by immigrants to Southeast Asia and many other parts of the world. The prestige variety and by far most commonly spoken variety is Cantonese, from the city of Guangzhou (historically called "Canton"), which is also the native language of the majority in Hong Kong and Macau.[44] Taishanese, from the coastal area of Jiangmen southwest of Guangzhou, was historically the most common Yue variety among overseas communities in the West until the late 20th century.[45] Not all Yue varieties are mutually intelligible. Most Yue varieties retain the full complement of Middle Chinese word-final consonants (/p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/) and have rich inventories of tones.[43]

The Language Atlas of China (1987) follows a classification of Li Rong, distinguishing three further groups:[46][47]

Jin
These varieties, spoken in Shanxi and adjacent areas, were formerly included in Mandarin. They are distinguished by their retention of the Middle Chinese entering tone category.[48]
Huizhou
The Hui dialects, spoken in southern Anhui, share different features with Wu, Gan and Mandarin, making them difficult to classify. Earlier scholars had assigned to them one or other of these groups, or to a group of their own.[49][50]
Pinghua
These varieties are descended from the speech of the earliest Chinese migrants to Guangxi, predating the later influx of Yue and Southwest Mandarin speakers. Some linguists treat them as a mixture of Yue and Xiang.[51]

Some varieties remain unclassified, including the Danzhou dialect (northwestern Hainan), Waxiang (northwestern Hunan), Xiangnan Tuhua (southern Hunan), Shaozhou Tuhua (northern Guangdong), and the forms of Chinese spoken by the She people (Shehua) and the Miao people.[52]

Most of the vocabulary of the Bai language of Yunnan appears to be related to Chinese words, though many are clearly loans from the last few centuries. Some scholars have suggested that it represents a very early branching from Chinese, while others argue that it is a more distantly related Sino-Tibetan language overlaid with two millennia of loans.[53][54][55]

Dialect geography

Map of the spread of 9 features identified by Norman as characteristic on northern dialects into the southeast. Areas with all these features are shown in darkest blue; those with none in darkest red. The central dialects lie in between.[56][57][58][59]

Jerry Norman classified the traditional seven dialect groups into three zones: Northern (Mandarin), Central (Wu, Gan, and Xiang) and Southern (Hakka, Yue, and Min).[60] He argued that the dialects of the Southern zone are derived from a standard used in the Yangtze valley during the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), which he called Old Southern Chinese, while the Central zone was a transitional area of dialects that were originally of southern type, but overlain with centuries of Northern influence.[60][57] Hilary Chappell proposed a refined model, dividing Norman's Northern zone into Northern and Southwestern areas, and his Southern zone into Southeastern (Min) and Far Southern (Yue and Hakka) areas, with Pinghua transitional between Southwestern and Far Southern areas.[61]

The long history of migration of peoples and interaction between speakers of different dialects makes it difficult to apply the tree model to Chinese.[62] Scholars account for the transitional nature of the central varieties in terms of wave models. Iwata argues that innovations have been transmitted from the north across the Huai River to the Lower Yangtze Mandarin area and from there southeast to the Wu area and westwards along the Yangtze River valley and thence to southwestern areas, leaving the hills of the southeast largely untouched.[63]

Some dialect boundaries, such as between Wu and Min, are particularly abrupt, while others, such as between Mandarin and Xiang or between Min and Hakka, are much less clearly defined.[27] Several east-west isoglosses run along the Huai and Yangtze Rivers.[64] A north-south barrier is formed by the Tianmu and Wuyi Mountains.[65]

Quantitative similarity

A 2007 study compared fifteen major urban dialects on the objective criteria of lexical similarity and regularity of sound correspondences, and subjective criteria of intelligibility and similarity. Most of these criteria show a top-level split with Northern, New Xiang, and Gan in one group and Min (samples at Fuzhou, Xiamen, Chaozhou), Hakka, and Yue in the other group. The exception was phonological regularity, where the one Gan dialect (Nanchang Gan) was in the Southern group and very close to Meixian Hakka, and the deepest phonological difference was between Wenzhounese (the southernmost Wu dialect) and all other dialects.[66]

The study did not find clear splits within the Northern and Central areas:[66]

  • Changsha (New Xiang) was always within the Mandarin group. No Old Xiang dialect was in the sample.
  • Taiyuan (Jin or Shanxi) and Hankou (Wuhan, Hubei) were subjectively perceived as relatively different from other Northern dialects but were very close in mutual intelligibility. Objectively, Taiyuan had substantial phonological divergence but little lexical divergence.
  • Chengdu (Sichuan) was somewhat divergent lexically but very little on the other measures.

The two Wu dialects in Wenzhou and Suzhou occupied an intermediate position, closer to the Northern/New Xiang/Gan group in lexical similarity and strongly closer in subjective intelligibility but closer to Min/Hakka/Yue in phonological regularity and subjective similarity, except that Wenzhou was farthest from all other dialects in phonological regularity. The two Wu dialects were close to each other in lexical similarity and subjective similarity but not in mutual intelligibility, where Suzhou was actually closer to Northern/Xiang/Gan than to Wenzhou.[66]

In the Southern subgroup, Hakka and Yue grouped closely together on the three lexical and subjective measures but not in phonological regularity. The Min dialects showed high divergence, with Min Fuzhou (Eastern Min) grouped only weakly with the Southern Min dialects of Xiamen and Chaozhou on the two objective criteria and was actually slightly closer to Hakka and Yue on the subjective criteria.[66]

Terminology

Local varieties from different areas of China are often mutually unintelligible, differing at least as much as different Romance languages and perhaps even as much as Indo-European languages as a whole.[67][68][69] These varieties form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family (with Bai sometimes being included in this grouping).[70] Because speakers share a standard written form, and have a common cultural heritage with long periods of political unity, the varieties are popularly perceived among native speakers as variants of a single Chinese language,[71] and this is also the official position.[72] Conventional English-language usage in Chinese linguistics is to use dialect for the speech of a particular place (regardless of status) while regional groupings like Mandarin and Wu are called dialect groups.[26] Other linguists choose to refer to the major groupings as languages.[68] ISO 639-3 follows the Ethnologue in assigning language codes to eight of the top-level groups listed above (all but Min and Pinghua) and five subgroups of Min, with codes for northern and southern Pinghua being added in 2020.[73][74]

The Chinese term fāngyán 方言, composed of characters meaning 'place' and 'speech', was the title of the first work of Chinese dialectology in the Han dynasty, and has had a range of meanings in the millennia since.[75] It is used for any regional subdivision of Chinese, from the speech of a village to major branches such as Mandarin and Wu.[76] Linguists writing in Chinese often qualify the term to distinguish different levels of classification.[77] All these terms have customarily been translated into English as dialect, a practice that has been criticized as confusing.[78] The neologisms regionalect and topolect have been proposed as alternative renderings of fangyan.[78][lower-alpha 3]

The only varieties usually recognized as languages in their own right are Dungan and Taz. This is mostly due to political reasons as they are spoken in the former Soviet Union and are usually not written in Han characters but in Cyrillic. Dungan is in fact a variety of Mandarin, with high although asymmetric mutual intelligibility with Standard Mandarin. Various mixed languages, particularly those spoken by ethnic minorities, are also referred to as languages such as Tangwang, Wutun, and E. The Taiwanese Ministry of Education uses the terms "Minnan language" and "Taiwan Minnan language".[80]

Phonology

Traditional Chinese syllable structure

The usual unit of analysis is the syllable, traditionally analysed as consisting of an initial consonant, a final and a tone.[81] In general, southern varieties have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, but more often preserve the Middle Chinese final consonants.[82] Some varieties, such as Cantonese, Hokkien and Shanghainese, include syllabic nasals as independent syllables.[83]

Initials

In the 42 varieties surveyed in the Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects, the number of initials (including a zero initial) ranges from 15 in some southern dialects to a high of 35 in Chongming dialect, spoken in Chongming Island, Shanghai.[84]

Initials of selected varieties[85][86]
Fuzhou (Min) Suzhou (Wu) Beijing (Mandarin)
Stops and
affricates		 voiceless aspirated pʰtʰtsʰkʰ pʰtʰtsʰtɕʰkʰ pʰtʰtsʰtɕʰtʂʰkʰ
voiceless unaspirated pttsk pttstɕk pttstɕtʂk
voiced bddʑɡ
Fricatives voiceless sx fsɕh fsɕʂx
voiced vzʑɦ ɻ/ʐ
Sonorants l∅ l∅ l∅
Nasals mnŋ mnɲŋ mn
Map of the extent of the palatal merger in the core Chinese-speaking area[87]

The initial system of the Fuzhou dialect of northern Fujian is a minimal example.[88] With the exception of /ŋ/, which is often merged with the zero initial, the initials of this dialect are present in all Chinese varieties, although several varieties do not distinguish /n/ from /l/. However, most varieties have additional initials, due to a combination of innovations and retention of distinctions from Middle Chinese:

  • Most non-Min varieties have a labiodental fricative /f/, which developed from Middle Chinese bilabial stops in certain environments.[89]
  • The voiced initials of Middle Chinese are retained in Wu dialects such as Suzhou and Shanghai, as well as Old Xiang dialects and a few Gan dialects, but have merged with voiceless initials elsewhere.[90][91] Southern Min varieties have an unrelated series of voiced initials resulting from devoicing of nasal initials in syllables without nasal finals.[92]
  • The Middle Chinese retroflex initials are retained in many Mandarin dialects, including Beijing but not southwestern and southeastern Mandarin varieties.[93]
  • In many northern and central varieties there is palatalization of dental affricates, velars (as in Suzhou), or both. In many places, including Beijing, palatalized dental affricates and palatalized velars have merged to form a new palatal series.[94]

Finals

Map of the distribution of stop codas in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area[98]

Chinese finals may be analysed as an optional medial glide, a main vowel and an optional coda.[99]

Conservative vowel systems, such as those of Gan dialects, have high vowels /i/, /u/ and /y/, which also function as medials, mid vowels /e/ and /o/, and a low /a/-like vowel.[100] In other dialects, including Mandarin dialects, /o/ has merged with /a/, leaving a single mid vowel with a wide range of allophones.[101] Many dialects, particularly in northern and central China, have apical or retroflex vowels, which are syllabic fricatives derived from high vowels following sibilant initials.[102] In many Wu dialects, vowels and final glides have monophthongized, producing a rich inventory of vowels in open syllables.[103] Reduction of medials is common in Yue dialects.[104]

The Middle Chinese codas, consisting of glides /j/ and /w/, nasals /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/, and stops /p/, /t/ and /k/, are best preserved in southern dialects, particularly Yue dialects such as Cantonese.[43] In some Min dialects, nasals and stops following open vowels have shifted to nasalization and glottal stops respectively.[105] In Jin, Lower Yangtze Mandarin and Wu dialects, the stops have merged as a final glottal stop, while in most northern varieties they have disappeared.[106] In Mandarin dialects final /m/ has merged with /n/, while some central dialects have a single nasal coda, in some cases realized as a nasalization of the vowel.[107]

Tones

Map of the variation in the number of tone categories in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area[108]

All varieties of Chinese, like neighbouring languages in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, have phonemic tones. Each syllable may be pronounced with between three and seven distinct pitch contours, denoting different morphemes. For example, the Beijing dialect distinguishes mā (妈/媽 'mother'), má (麻 'hemp'), mǎ (马/馬 'horse) and mà (骂/罵 'to scold'). The number of tonal contrasts varies between dialects, with Northern dialects tending to have fewer distinctions than Southern ones.[109] Many dialects have tone sandhi, in which the pitch contour of a syllable is affected by the tones of adjacent syllables in a compound word or phrase.[110] This process is so extensive in Shanghainese that the tone system is reduced to a pitch accent system much like modern Japanese.

The tonal categories of modern varieties can be related by considering their derivation from the four tones of Middle Chinese, though cognate tonal categories in different dialects are often realized as quite different pitch contours.[111] Middle Chinese had a three-way tonal contrast in syllables with vocalic or nasal endings. The traditional names of the tonal categories are 'level'/'even' (平 píng), 'rising' (上 shǎng) and 'departing'/'going' (去 qù). Syllables ending in a stop consonant /p/, /t/ or /k/ (checked syllables) had no tonal contrasts but were traditionally treated as a fourth tone category, 'entering' (入 rù), corresponding to syllables ending in nasals /m/, /n/, or /ŋ/.[112]

The tones of Middle Chinese, as well as similar systems in neighbouring languages, experienced a tone split conditioned by syllabic onsets. Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late Tang dynasty, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials, known as "upper" (阴/陰 yīn) and "lower" (阳/陽 yáng).[113] When voicing was lost in all dialects except the Wu and Old Xiang groups, this distinction became phonemic, yielding eight tonal categories, with a six-way contrast in unchecked syllables and a two-way contrast in checked syllables.[114] Cantonese maintains these eight tonal categories and has developed an additional distinction in checked syllables.[115] (The latter distinction has disappeared again in many varieties.)

However, most Chinese varieties have reduced the number of tonal distinctions.[111] For example, in Mandarin, the tones resulting from the split of Middle Chinese rising and departing tones merged, leaving four tones. Furthermore, final stop consonants disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, and such syllables were distributed amongst the four remaining tones, seemingly at random.[116]

Tonal categories and pitch contours in colloquial layers
Middle Chinese tone and initial
level rising departing entering
vl.n.vd. vl.n.vd. vl.n.vd. vl.n.vd.
Jin[117] Taiyuan 1 ˩ 3 ˥˧ 5 ˥ 7 ˨˩ 8 ˥˦
Mandarin[117] Xi'an 1 ˧˩ 2 ˨˦ 3 ˦˨ 5 ˥ 1 2
Beijing 1 ˥ 2 ˧˥ 3 ˨˩˦ 5 ˥˩ 1,2,3,552
Chengdu 1 ˦ 2 ˧˩ 3 ˥˧ 5 ˩˧ 2
Yangzhou 1 ˨˩ 2 ˧˥ 3 ˧˩ 5 ˥ 7 ˦
Xiang[118] Changsha 1 ˧ 2 ˩˧ 3 ˦˩ 6 5 ˥ 6 ˨˩ 7 ˨˦
Shuangfeng 1 ˦ 2 ˨˧ 3 ˨˩ 6 5 ˧˥ 6 ˧ 2, 5
Gan[119] Nanchang 1 ˦˨ 2 ˨˦ 3 ˨˩˧ 6 5 ˦˥ 6 ˨˩ 7 ˥ 8 ˨˩
Wu[120] Suzhou 1 ˦ 2 ˨˦ 3 ˦˩ 6 5 ˥˩˧ 6 ˧˩ 7 ˦ 8 ˨˧
Shanghai 1 ˦˨ 2 ˨˦ 3 ˧˥ 2 3 2 7 ˥ 8 ˨˧
Wenzhou 1 ˦ 2 ˧˩ 3 ˦˥ 4 ˨˦ 5 ˦˨ 6 ˩ 7 ˨˧ 8 ˩˨
Min[121] Xiamen 1 ˥ 2 ˨˦ 3 ˥˩ 6 5 ˩ 6 ˧ 7 ˧˨ 8 ˥
Hakka[122] Meixian 1 ˦ 2 ˩˨ 3 ˧˩ 1,3 1 5 ˦˨ 7 ˨˩ 8 ˦
Yue[123] Guangzhou 1 ˥˧,˥ 2 ˨˩ 3 ˧˥ 4 ˨˧[lower-alpha 4] 5 ˧ 6 ˨ 7a ˥7b ˧ 8 ˨

In Wu, voiced obstruents were retained, and the tone split never became phonemic: the higher-pitched allophones occur with initial voiceless consonants, and the lower-pitched allophones occur with initial voiced consonants.[120] (Traditional Chinese classification nonetheless counts these as different tones.) Most Wu dialects retain the tone categories of Middle Chinese, but in Shanghainese several of these have merged.

Many Chinese varieties exhibit tone sandhi, in which the realization of a tone varies depending on the context of the syllable. For example, in Standard Chinese a third tone changes to a second tone when followed by another third tone.[125] Particularly complex sandhi patterns are found in Wu dialects and coastal Min dialects.[126] In Shanghainese, the tone of all syllables in a word is determined by the tone of the first, so that Shanghainese has word rather than syllable tone.

Vocabulary

Most morphemes in Chinese varieties are monosyllables descended from Old Chinese words, and have cognates in all varieties:

Colloquial pronunciations of cognate morphemes[127][lower-alpha 5]
Word Jin Mandarin Xiang Gan Wu Min Hakka Yue
TaiyuanXi'anBeijingChengduYangzhouChangshaShuangfengNanchangSuzhouWenzhouFuzhouXiamenMeixianGuangzhou
人 'person'zəŋ1ʐẽ2ʐən2zən2lən2ʐən2ɲiɛn2ɲin5ɲin2ɲiaŋ2nøyŋ2laŋ2ɲin2jɐn2
男 'man'næ̃1næ̃2nan2nan2liæ̃2lan2læ̃2lan5nø2nø2naŋ2lam2nam2nam2
女 'woman'ny3mi3ny3ɲy3ly3ɲy3ɲy3ɲy3ɲy6ɲy4ny3lu3ŋ3nøy4
魚 'fish'y1y2y2y2y2y2y2ɲiɛ5ŋ2ŋøy2ŋy2hi2ŋ2jy2
蛇 'snake'sɤ1ʂɤ2ʂɤ2se2ɕɪ2sa2ɣio2sa5zo2zei2sie2tsua2sa2ʃɛ2
肉 'meat'zuəʔ7ʐou5ʐou5zəu2ləʔ7ʐəu7ɲu5ɲiuk8ɲioʔ8ɲiəu8nyʔ8hɪk8ɲiuk7juk8
骨 'bone'kuəʔ7ku1ku3ku2kuəʔ7ku7kəu2kut7kuɤʔ7ky7kauʔ7kut7kut7kuɐt7a
眼 'eye'nie3ɲiã3iɛn3iɛn3iæ̃3ŋan3ŋæ̃3ŋan3ŋɛ6ŋa4ŋiaŋ3gɪŋ3ɲian3ŋan4
耳 'ear'ɚ3ɚ3ɚ3ɚ3a3ɤ3e3ə3ɲi6ŋ4ŋei5hi6ɲi3ji4
鼻 'nose'pieʔ8pi2pi2pi2pieʔ7pi2bi6pʰit8bɤʔ8bei6pei6pʰi6pʰi5pei6
日 "sun", 'day'zəʔ7ɚ1ʐʅ5zɿ2ləʔ7ɲʅ7i2ɲit8ɲɪʔ8ɲiai8niʔ8lit8ɲit7jat8
月 "moon", 'month'yəʔ7ye1ye5ye2yəʔ7ye7ya5ɲyɔt8ŋɤʔ8ɲy8ŋuɔʔ8geʔ8ɲiat8jyt8
年 'year'nie1ɲiæ̃2niɛn2ɲiɛn2liẽ2ɲiẽ2ɲɪ̃2ɲiɛn5ɲiɪ2ɲi2nieŋ2nĩ2ɲian2nin2
山 'mountain'sæ̃1sæ̃1ʂan1san1sæ̃1san1sæ̃1san1sɛ1sa1saŋ1suã1san1ʃan1
水 'water'suei3fei3ʂuei3suei3suəi3ɕyei3ɕy3sui3sɥ3sɿ3tsy3tsui3sui3ʃøy3
紅 'red'xuŋ1xuoŋ2xuŋ2xoŋ2xoŋ2xən2ɣən2fuŋ5ɦoŋ2ɦoŋ2øyŋ2aŋ2fuŋ2huŋ2
綠 'green'luəʔ7lou1ly5nu2lɔʔ7lou7ləu2liuk8loʔ7lo8luɔʔ8lɪk8liuk8luk8
黃 'yellow'xuɒ̃1xuaŋ2xuaŋ2xuaŋ2xuɑŋ2uan2ɒŋ2uɔŋ5ɦuɒŋ2ɦuɔ2uɔŋ2hɔŋ2vɔŋ2wɔŋ2
白 'white'piəʔ7pei2pai2pe2pɔʔ7pɤ7pia2pʰak7bɒʔ8ba8paʔ8peʔ8pʰak8pak8
黑 'black'xəʔ7xei1xei1xe2xəʔ7xa7ɕia2hɛt8hɤʔ7xe7xaiʔ7hɪk7hɛt7hɐk7a
上 'above'sɒ̃5ʂaŋ5ʂaŋ5saŋ5sɑŋ5san6ɣiaŋ6sɔŋ6zɒŋ6ji6suɔŋ6tsiũ6sɔŋ5ʃœŋ6
下 'below'ɕia5xa5ɕia5ɕia5xɑ5xa6ɣo6ha6ɦo6ɦo4a6e6ha2ha6
中 'middle'tsuŋ1pfəŋ1tʂuŋ1tsoŋ1tsoŋ1tʂən1tan1tsuŋ1tsoŋ1tɕyoŋ1touŋ1taŋ1tuŋ1tʃuŋ1
大 'big'ta5tuo5ta5ta5tai5tai6du6tʰɔ6dəu6dəu6tuai6tua6tʰai5tai6
小 'small'ɕiau3ɕiau3ɕiau3ɕiau3ɕiɔ3ɕiau3ɕiɤ3ɕiɛu3siæ3sai3sieu3sio3siau3ʃiu3

First- and second-person pronouns are cognate across all varieties. For third-person pronouns, Jin, Mandarin, and Xiang varieties have cognate forms, but other varieties generally use forms that originally had a velar or glottal initial:[128]

Personal pronouns[lower-alpha 5]
Jin[127] Mandarin[129] Xiang[130] Gan[131] Wu[132] Min[133] Hakka[134] Yue[135]
TaiyuanXi'anBeijingChengduYangzhouChangshaShuangfengNanchangSuzhouWenzhouFuzhouXiamenMeixianGuangzhou
'I'ɣɤ3ŋə3uo3ŋo3o3ŋo3aŋ3ŋɔ3ŋəu6ŋ4ŋuai3gua3ŋai2ŋo4
'you'ni3ni3ni3ni3liɪ3n3, ɲi3n3li3, n3ne6ɲi4ny3li3ɲi2, n2nei4
'he/she'tʰa1tʰa1tʰa1tʰa1tʰa1tʰa1tʰo1tɕʰiɛ3li1gi2i1i1ki2kʰøy4

Southern varieties also include distinctive substrata of vocabulary of non-Chinese origin. Some of these words may have come from Tai–Kadai and Austroasiatic languages.[136]

Grammar

Chinese varieties generally lack inflectional morphology and instead express grammatical categories using analytic means such as particles and prepositions.[137] There are major differences between northern and southern varieties, but often some northern areas share features found in the south, and vice versa.[138]

Constituent order

Map of the variation in the placement of animal gender markers in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area[139]

The usual unmarked word order in Chinese varieties is subject–verb–object, with other orders used for emphasis or contrast.[140] Modifiers usually precede the word they modify, so that adjectives precede nouns.[141] Instances in which the modifier follows the head are mainly found in the south, and are attributed to substrate influences from languages formerly dominant in the area, especially Kra–Dai languages.[142]

  • Adverbs generally precede verbs, but in some southern varieties certain kinds of adverb follow the verb.[143]
  • In the north, animal gender markers are prefixed to the noun, as in Beijing mǔjī (母鸡/母雞) 'hen' and gōngjī (公鸡/公雞) 'rooster', but most southern varieties use the reverse order, while others use different orders for different words.[144]
  • Compounds consisting of an attributive following a noun are less common, but some are found in the south as well as a few northern areas.[145]

Major sentence types

All varieties have transitive and intransitive verbs. Instead of adjectives, Chinese varieties use stative verbs, which can function as predicates but differ from intransitive verbs in being modifiable by degree adverbs.[146] Ditransitive sentences vary, with northern varieties placing the indirect object before the direct object and southern varieties using the reverse order.[147]

All varieties have copular sentences of the form NP1 + COP + NP2, though the copula varies.[148] Most Yue and Hakka varieties use a form cognate with xì 係 'to connect'.[149] All other varieties use a form cognate with shì 是, which was a demonstrative in Classical Chinese but began to be used as a copula from the Han period.[150][151]

All varieties form existential sentences with a verb cognate with yǒu 有, which can also be used as a transitive verb indicating possession.[152] Most varieties use a locative verb cognate to zài 在, but Min, Wu and Yue varieties use several different forms.[153]

Modifications

A sentence is negated by placing a marker before the verb. Old Chinese had two families of negation markers starting with *p- and *m-, respectively.[154] Northern and Central varieties tend to use a word from the first family, cognate with Beijing bù 不, as the ordinary negator.[56] A word from the second family is used as an existential negator 'have not', as in Beijing méi 沒 and Shanghai m2.[155] In Mandarin varieties this word is also used for 'not yet', whereas in Wu and other groups a different form is typically used.[156] In Southern varieties, negators tend to come from the second family. The ordinary negators in these varieties are all derived from a syllabic nasal *m̩, though it has a level tone in Hakka and Yue and a rising tone in Min. Existential negators derive from a proto-form *mau, though again the tonal category varies between groups.[157]

Sociolinguistics

Bilingualism and code-switching

In southern China (not including Hong Kong and Macau), where the difference between Standard Chinese and local dialects is particularly pronounced, well-educated Chinese are generally fluent in Standard Chinese, and most people have at least a good passive knowledge of it, in addition to being native speakers of the local dialect. The choice of dialect varies based on the social situation. Standard Chinese is usually considered more formal and is required when speaking to a person who does not understand the local dialect. The local dialect (be it non-Standard Chinese or non-Mandarin altogether) is generally considered more intimate and is used among close family members and friends and in everyday conversation within the local area. Chinese speakers will frequently code switch between Standard Chinese and the local dialect. Parents will generally speak to their children in the local variety, and the relationship between dialect and Mandarin appears to be mostly stable, even a diglossia. Local dialects are valued as symbols of regional cultures.[158]

People generally are tied to the hometown and therefore the hometown dialect, instead of a broad linguistic classification. For example, a person from Wuxi may claim that he speaks Wuxi dialect, even though it is similar to Shanghainese (another Wu dialect). Likewise, a person from Xiaogan may claim that he speaks Xiaogan dialect. Linguistically, Xiaogan dialect is a dialect of Mandarin, but the pronunciation and diction are quite different from spoken Standard Chinese.

Knowing the local dialect is of considerable social benefit, and most Chinese who permanently move to a new area will attempt to pick up the local dialect. Learning a new dialect is usually done informally through a process of immersion and recognizing sound shifts. Generally the differences are more pronounced lexically than grammatically. Typically, a speaker of one dialect of Chinese will need about a year of immersion to understand the local dialect and about three to five years to become fluent in speaking it. Because of the variety of dialects spoken, there are usually few formal methods for learning a local dialect.

Due to the variety in Chinese speech, Mandarin speakers from each area of China are very often prone to fuse or "translate" words from their local language into their Mandarin conversations. In addition, each area of China has its recognizable accents while speaking Mandarin. Generally, the nationalized standard form of Mandarin pronunciation is only heard on news and radio broadcasts. Even in the streets of Beijing, the flavor of Mandarin varies in pronunciation from the Mandarin heard on the media.

Language policy

A school in Guangdong with writing "Please speak Standard Chinese. Please write standard characters" on the wall.

Chinese Mainland

Within mainland China, there has been a persistent Promotion of Putonghua drive; for instance, the education system is entirely Mandarin-medium from the second year onward. However, usage of local dialect is tolerated and socially preferred in many informal situations. In Hong Kong, colloquial Cantonese characters are never used in formal documents other than quoting witnesses' spoken statements during legal trials, and within the PRC a character set closer to Mandarin tends to be used. At the national level, differences in dialect generally do not correspond to political divisions or categories, and this has for the most part prevented dialect from becoming the basis of identity politics.

Historically, many of the people who promoted Chinese nationalism were from southern China and did not natively speak Mandarin, and even leaders from northern China rarely spoke with the standard accent. For example, Mao Zedong often emphasized his origins in Hunan in speaking, rendering much of what he said incomprehensible to many Chinese. Chiang Kai-shek and Sun Yat-sen were also from southern China, and this is reflected in their conventional English names reflecting Cantonese pronunciations for their given names, and differing from their Mandarin pinyin spellings Jiǎng Jièshí and Sūn Yìxiān. One consequence of this is that China does not have a well-developed tradition of spoken political rhetoric, and most Chinese political works are intended primarily as written works rather than spoken works. Another factor that limits the political implications of dialect is that it is very common within an extended family for different people to know and use different dialects.

Taiwan

Before 1945, other than a small Japanese-speaking population, most of the population of Taiwan were Han Chinese, who spoke Taiwanese Hokkien or Hakka, with a minority of Taiwanese aborigines, who spoke Formosan languages.[159] When the Kuomintang retreated to the island after losing the Chinese Civil War in 1949, they brought a substantial influx of speakers of Northern Chinese (and other dialects from across China), and viewed the use of Mandarin as part of their claim to be a legitimate government of the whole of China.[160] Education policy promoted the use of Mandarin over the local languages, and was implemented especially rigidly in elementary schools, with punishments and public humiliation for children using other languages at school.[160]

From the 1970s, the government promoted adult education in Mandarin, required Mandarin for official purposes, and encouraged its increased use in broadcasting.[161] Over a 40-year period, these policies succeeded in spreading the use and prestige of Mandarin through society at the expense of the other languages.[162] They also aggravated social divisions, as Mandarin speakers found it difficult to find jobs in private companies but were favored for government positions.[162] From the 1990s, Taiwanese native languages (Taiwanese Hokkien, Taiwanese Hakka and the Formosan languages) were offered in elementary and middle schools, first in Yilan county, then in other areas governed by elected Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) politicians, and finally throughout the island.[163]

Singapore

In 1966, the Singaporean government implemented a policy of bilingual education, where Singaporean students learn both English and their designated native language, which was Mandarin for Chinese Singaporeans (even though Singaporean Hokkien had previously been their lingua franca). The Goh Report, an evaluation of Singapore's education system by Goh Keng Swee, showed that less than 40% of the student population managed to attain minimum levels of competency in two languages.[164] It was later determined that the learning of Mandarin among Singaporean Chinese was hindered by home use of other Chinese varieties, such as Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese and Hakka.[165][166] Hence, the government decided to rectify problems facing implementation of the bilingual education policy, by launching a campaign to promote Mandarin as a common language among the Chinese population, and to discourage use of other Chinese varieties.

Launched in 1979 by then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew,[167] the campaign aimed to simplify the language environment for Chinese Singaporeans, improve communication between them, and create a Mandarin-speaking environment conducive to the successful implementation of the bilingual education program. The initial goal of the campaign was for all young Chinese to stop speaking dialects in five years, and to establish Mandarin as the language of choice in public places within 10 years.[168][169] According to the government, for the bilingual policy to be effective, Mandarin should be spoken at home and should serve as the lingua franca among Chinese Singaporeans.[170] They also argued that Mandarin was more economically valuable, and speaking Mandarin would help Chinese Singaporeans retain their heritage, as Mandarin contains a cultural repository of values and traditions that are identifiable to all Chinese, regardless of dialect group.[171]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The colloquial layers of many varieties, particularly Min varieties, reflect features that predate Middle Chinese.[1][2]
  2. ↑ Also known as the Sinitic languages, from Late Latin Sīnae, "the Chinese". In 1982, Paul K. Benedict proposed a subgroup of Sino-Tibetan called "Sinitic" comprising Bai and Chinese.[4] The precise affiliation of Bai remains uncertain,[5] but the term "Sinitic" is usually used as a synonym for Chinese, especially when viewed as a language family.[6]
  3. ↑ John DeFrancis proposed the neologism regionalect to serve as a translation for fāngyán when referring to mutually unintelligible divisions.[78] Victor Mair coined the term topolect as a translation for all uses of fāngyán.[79] The latter term appears in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language.
  4. ↑ Some words of literary origin with voiced initials shifted to category 6.[124]
  5. 1 2 The tone numbers of § Tones are used to facilitate comparison between dialects.

References

Citations

  1. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 211–214.
  2. ↑ Pulleyblank (1984), p. 3.
  3. ↑ Wurm et al. (1987), Map A2.
  4. ↑ Wang (2005), p. 107.
  5. ↑ Wang (2005), p. 122.
  6. ↑ Mair (1991), p. 3.
  7. ↑ "LEARNING MANDARIN". Taiwan.gov.tw The official website of the Republic of China. Retrieved 6 October 2019. In modern Taiwan, traditional Chinese characters are utilized as the written form of Mandarin, one of the nation's official languages.
  8. ↑ "Constitution of the Republic of Singapore PART XIII GENERAL PROVISIONS". Singapore Statutes Online Plus. Retrieved 6 October 2019. Official languages and national language 153A.—(1) Malay, Mandarin, Tamil and English shall be the 4 official languages in Singapore.
  9. 1 2 Norman (1988), p. 183.
  10. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 183, 185.
  11. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 185.
  12. ↑ Ramsey (1987), pp. 116–117.
  13. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 24–25.
  14. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 183–190.
  15. ↑ Ramsey (1987), p. 22.
  16. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 136.
  17. ↑ Ramsey (1987), pp. 3–15.
  18. ↑ Bradley (1992), pp. 309–312.
  19. ↑ Bradley (1992), pp. 313–318.
  20. ↑ Chen (1999), pp. 46–49.
  21. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 247.
  22. 1 2 Norman (1988), p. 187.
  23. ↑ Ramsey (1987), p. 7.
  24. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 2–3.
  25. ↑ Ramsey (1987), pp. 16–18.
  26. 1 2 Norman (2003), p. 72.
  27. 1 2 Norman (1988), pp. 189–190.
  28. 1 2 Norman (1988), p. 188.
  29. ↑ Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012), pp. 3, 125.
  30. ↑ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 36–41.
  31. ↑ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 41–53.
  32. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 181.
  33. ↑ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 53–55.
  34. ↑ Yan (2006), p. 90.
  35. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 199–200.
  36. ↑ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 46, 49–50.
  37. ↑ Yan (2006), p. 148.
  38. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 207–209.
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  40. 1 2 Norman (1988), p. 233.
  41. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 232–233.
  42. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 224.
  43. 1 2 3 Norman (1988), p. 217.
  44. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 215.
  45. ↑ Ramsey (1987), p. 98.
  46. ↑ Wurm et al. (1987).
  47. ↑ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 55–56.
  48. ↑ Yan (2006), pp. 60–61.
  49. ↑ Yan (2006), pp. 222–223.
  50. ↑ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 43–44, 48, 69, 75–76.
  51. ↑ Yan (2006), p. 235.
  52. ↑ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 72–73.
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  54. ↑ Norman (2003), pp. 73, 75.
  55. ↑ Wang (2005).
  56. 1 2 Norman (1988), p. 182.
  57. 1 2 Norman (2003), pp. 73, 76.
  58. ↑ Cao (2008a), Maps 4, 52, 66, 73.
  59. ↑ Cao (2008b), Maps 3, 28, 38, 41, 76.
  60. 1 2 Norman (1988), pp. 182–183.
  61. ↑ Chappell (2015), pp. 45–51.
  62. ↑ Norman (2003), p. 76.
  63. ↑ Iwata (2010), pp. 102–108.
  64. ↑ Iwata (1995), pp. 211–212.
  65. ↑ Iwata (1995), pp. 215–216, 218.
  66. 1 2 3 4 Tang & Van Heuven (2007), p. 1025.
  67. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 1.
  68. 1 2 Mair (2013).
  69. ↑ Yan (2006), p. 2.
  70. ↑ Norman (2003), p. 73.
  71. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 1–2.
  72. ↑ Liang (2014), p. 14.
  73. ↑ Lewis, Simons & Fennig (2015).
  74. ↑ "ISO 639-3: Change Request Documentation: 2019-060". SIL International. 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  75. ↑ Mair (1991), pp. 3–6.
  76. ↑ Kurpaska (2010), p. 2.
  77. ↑ Kurpaska (2010), p. 63.
  78. 1 2 3 DeFrancis (1984), p. 57.
  79. ↑ Mair (1991), p. 7.
  80. ↑ "Ministry of Education Republic of China (Taiwan)". 25 October 2017.
  81. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 138–139.
  82. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 212–213.
  83. ↑ Ramsey (1987), p. 101.
  84. ↑ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 186–188.
  85. ↑ Yan (2006), pp. 69, 90, 127.
  86. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 139, 236.
  87. ↑ Cao (2008a), Map off.
  88. ↑ Yan (2006), p. 127.
  89. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 211, 233.
  90. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 199–200, 207.
  91. ↑ Yan (2006), pp. 91, 108–109, 152.
  92. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 235–236.
  93. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 193.
  94. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 182, 193, 200, 205.
  95. ↑ Cao (2008a), Map 040.
  96. ↑ Cao (2008a), Map 045.
  97. ↑ Cao (2008a), Map 043.
  98. ↑ Cao (2008a), Map 124.
  99. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 28, 141.
  100. ↑ Yan (2006), pp. 150–151.
  101. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 141, 198.
  102. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 194.
  103. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 200–201.
  104. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 216–217.
  105. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 237.
  106. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 193, 201–202.
  107. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 193, 201.
  108. ↑ Cao (2008a), Map 001.
  109. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 9.
  110. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 147, 202, 239.
  111. 1 2 Norman (1988), p. 54.
  112. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 34–36.
  113. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 53–54.
  114. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 53.
  115. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 217–218.
  116. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 194–195.
  117. 1 2 Norman (1988), pp. 195–196, 272.
  118. ↑ Yan (2006), pp. 108, 116–117.
  119. ↑ Yan (2006), pp. 162–163.
  120. 1 2 Norman (1988), p. 202.
  121. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 238–239.
  122. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 225–226.
  123. ↑ Yan (2006), p. 198.
  124. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 218.
  125. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 146–147.
  126. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 202, 239.
  127. 1 2 Beijing University (1989).
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  129. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 196.
  130. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 208.
  131. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 205.
  132. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 203.
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  134. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 227.
  135. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 220.
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  137. ↑ Chappell & Li (2016), pp. 606–607.
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  139. ↑ Cao (2008b), Map 076.
  140. ↑ Yue (2017), p. 130.
  141. ↑ Chappell & Li (2016), p. 606.
  142. ↑ Yue-Hashimoto (1993), p. 1.
  143. ↑ Yue-Hashimoto (1993), pp. 1–2.
  144. ↑ Yue-Hashimoto (1993), pp. 2–4.
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  151. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 125.
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  156. ↑ Norman (1988), pp. 196–197, 203–204.
  157. ↑ Norman (1988), p. 213.
  158. ↑ Chen (1999), p. 57.
  159. ↑ Hsieh (2007), pp. 12–13.
  160. 1 2 Hsieh (2007), p. 15.
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  163. ↑ Hsieh (2007), pp. 20–21.
  164. ↑ "The Goh Report". Archived from the original on 2 October 2013.
  165. ↑ Manfred Whoa Man-Fat, "A Critical Evaluation of Singapore's Language Policy and its Implications for English Teaching", Karen's Linguistics Issues. Retrieved on 4 November 2010
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  167. ↑ Lee, Kuan Yew (2000). From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965–2000. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-019776-6.
  168. ↑ Lim Siew Yeen and Jessie Yak, Speak Mandarin Campaign Archived 7 January 2014 at archive.today, Infopedia, National Library Board Singapore, 4 July 2013.
  169. ↑ (in Chinese) "讲华语运动30年 对象随大环境改变", Hua Sheng Bao, 17 March 2009.
  170. ↑ Bokhorst-Heng, Wendy (1999). "Singapore's Speak Mandarin Campaign: Language ideological debates and the imagining of the nation". In Blommaert, Jan (ed.). Language Ideological Debates. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 235–265. ISBN 978-3-11-016350-6.
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Further reading

  • Ao, Benjamin (1991), "Comparative reconstruction of proto-Chinese revisited", Language Sciences, 13 (3/4): 335–379, doi:10.1016/0388-0001(91)90022-S.
  • Baron, Stephen P. (1983), "Chain shifts in Chinese historical phonology : problems of motivation and functionality", Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale, 12 (1): 43–63, doi:10.3406/clao.1983.1125.
  • Ben Hamed, Mahé (2005), "Neighbour-nets portray the Chinese dialect continuum and the linguistic legacy of China's demic history", Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 272 (1567): 1015–1022, doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.3015, JSTOR 30047639, PMC 1599877, PMID 16024359.
  • Ben Hamed, Mahé; Wang, Feng (2006), "Stuck in the forest: Trees, networks and Chinese dialects", Diachronica, 23 (1): 29–60, doi:10.1075/dia.23.1.04ham.
  • Branner, David Prager (2000), Problems in Comparative Chinese Dialectology – the Classification of Miin and Hakka, Trends in Linguistics series, no. 123, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-015831-1.
  • Chappell, Hilary (2001), "Synchrony and diachrony of Sinitic languages: A brief history of Chinese dialects" (PDF), in Chappell, Hilary (ed.), Sinitic grammar: synchronic and diachronic perspectives, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 3–28, ISBN 978-0-19-829977-6.
  • Chappell, Hilary; Li, Ming; Peyraube, Alain (2007), "Chinese linguistics and typology: the state of the art", Linguistic Typology, 11 (1): 187–211, doi:10.1515/LINGTY.2007.014, S2CID 123103670.
  • Escure, Geneviève (1997), Creole and Dialect Continua: standard acquisition processes in Belize and China (PRC), John Benjamins, ISBN 978-90-272-5240-1.
  • Francis, Norbert (2016), "Language and dialect in China", Chinese Language and Discourse, 7 (1): 136–149, doi:10.1075/cld.7.1.05fra.
  • Groves, Julie M. (2008), "Language or Dialect – or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese" (PDF), Sino-Platonic Papers, 179: 1–103.
  • Handel, Zev (2015), "The Classification of Chinese: Sinitic (The Chinese Language Family)", in Wang, William S. Y.; Sun, Chaofen (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 34–44, ISBN 978-0-19-985633-6.
  • Hannas, Wm. C. (1997), Asia's Orthographic Dilemma, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1892-0.
  • Norman, Jerry (2006), "Common Dialectal Chinese", in Branner, David Prager (ed.), The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology, Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Series IV: Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, vol. 271, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 233–254, ISBN 978-90-272-4785-8.
  • Sagart, Laurent (1998), "On distinguishing Hakka and non-Hakka dialects", Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 26 (2): 281–302, JSTOR 23756757.
  • Simmons, Richard VanNess (1999), Chinese Dialect Classification: A comparative approach to Harngjou, Old Jintarn, and Common Northern Wu, John Benjamins, ISBN 978-90-272-8433-4.
  • Hatano Tarō (波多野太郎) (1963–1972). Chūgoku hōshi shoroku hōgen kaihen(中国方志所錄方言滙編) Yokohama Shiritsu Daigaku Kiyō(横濱市立大學紀要) Series A-33 no.147, A-34 no.150, A-36 no.154, A-37 no.161, A-40 no.172, A-42 no.182, A-45 no.189, Humanities science no .1, Humanities science no .3. Yokohama : Yokohama City University.
  • 陈晓锦 & 甘于恩 (2010). 东南亚华人社区汉语方言概要(全三册). Guangzhou: 世界图书出版公司. ISBN 978-7-5100-8769-1.
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