Indigenous peoples

Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis,^[17] the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.^[17]

The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.^[18][19] The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.^[20] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.^[21][22] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.^[23]

Linguistic areas of North American Indigenous peoples at the time of European contact^[24]

The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000^[25] and two million,^[26] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.^[27] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk, disappeared.^[28] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox, to which they had no natural immunity,^[25][29] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.^[30][31]

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.^[32] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureurs des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.^[33] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties.^[34][35] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.^[36] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration through state-funded boarding schools,^[37] health-care segregation,^[38] and displacement.^[39] A period of redress began with the formation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.^[40] This included recognition of past colonial injustices and settlement agreements and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.^[40][41]

European colonization

Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750. Possessions of British America (pink), New France (blue), and New Spain (orange); California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated.^[42]

It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson.^[43][44] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland.^[45] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of Henry VII of England.^[46] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.^[47] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.^[48] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.^[49][50]

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp.^[51] In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence.^[45] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).^[52] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.^[53] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.^[54]

The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south.^[55][56] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.^[57] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.^[58]

British North America

Benjamin West's The Death of General Wolfe (1771) dramatizes James Wolfe's death during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec City.^[59]

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.^[15] St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.^[60] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.^[61] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.^[62] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.^[63] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.^[15]

After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.^[64] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city.^[65] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.^[66]

War of 1812 heroine Laura Secord warning British commander James FitzGibbon of an impending American attack at Beaver Dams^[67]

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.^[68] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.^[69] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.^[70] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.^[25]

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837.^[71] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.^[15] The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.^[72] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).^[73] The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.^[74]

Confederation and expansion

Animated map showing the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation in 1867^[75]

Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.^[76][77] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.^[78] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,^[79] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.^[80] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.^[80] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.^[81]

To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), passed the Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert authority over the territory.^[82][83] This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves",^[84] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements.^[85] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land.^[86] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.^[87] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.^[88] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.^[89]

Early 20th century

1918 Canadian War bond posters depicting three French women pulling a plow that had been constructed for horses

French version of the poster roughly translates as "They serve France–Everyone can serve; Buy Victory Bonds".

The same poster in English, with subtle differences in text. "They serve France—How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds".

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War.^[90] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.^[91] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.^[92] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.^[93] The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.^[93] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,^[91] and the Statute of Westminster, 1931, affirmed Canada's independence.^[94]

The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.^[95] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.^[96] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.^[91]

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded.^[97] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.^[91] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.^[98]

The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.^[91] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.^[99]

Contemporary era

The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.^[100] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.^[101]

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the maple leaf flag in 1965,^[102] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,^[103] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.^[104] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans; though, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.^[105]

A copy of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms^[106]

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^{[107][108][109]} Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy.^[110][111] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.^[112]

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.^[113] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970,^[114] and the sovereigntist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.^[115] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.^[116][117] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.^[118] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.^[115]

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;^[119] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;^[120] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,^[121] the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups.^[122] Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a United States–led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia.^[123] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 but declined to join the United States–led invasion of Iraq in 2003.^[124]

In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War^[125] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.^[126] The country celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2017, three years before the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, with widespread social and economic disruption.^[127] In 2021, the possible graves of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools.^[128] Administered by various Christian churches and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.^[37]

Climate

Köppen climate classification types of Canada

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.^[142] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).^[143]

Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.^[144] Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.^[131] The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.^[145] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity in Canada.^[146]

Biodiversity

Terrestrial ecozones and ecoprovinces of Canada. Ecozones are identified with a unique colour. Ecoprovinces are subdivisions of ecozones and are identified with a unique numeric code.^[147]

Canada is divided into 15 terrestrial and five marine ecozones.^[148] These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.^[149] Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries,^[150] due to human activities, invasive species, and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost.^[151] About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure".^[152] Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.^[153] The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 km² (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.^[154] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions,^[155] with 42 percent of its land area covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land).^[156]

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas.^[157] Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.^[157] Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park established in 1885, spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi)^[158] of mountainous terrain, with many glaciers and ice fields, dense coniferous forest, and alpine landscapes.^[159] Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park, established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres (2,955.01 sq mi). It is dominated by old-growth forest with over 2,400 lakes and 1,200 kilometres of streams and rivers.^[160] Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of lakebed, its overlaying freshwater, and associated shoreline on 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi) of islands and mainland.^[161] Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area, which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres (4,467.45 sq mi)^[162] and protects critical breeding and nesting habitat for over 40 percent of British Columbia's seabirds.^[163] Canada's 18 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves cover a total area of 235,000 square kilometres (91,000 sq mi).^[164]

Law

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.^[211] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.^[212] The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^[213] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government; though, a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.^[214]

The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since December 18, 2017, by Richard Wagner, the Chief Justice of Canada.^[215] The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice.^[216] The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.^[217]

Common law prevails everywhere, except in Quebec, where civil law predominates.^[218] Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.^[219] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.^[220] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.^[221]

Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.^[222] Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.^[223] Most notably, a series of 11 treaties, known as the Numbered Treaties, were signed between the Indigenous peoples and the reigning monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921.^[224] These treaties are agreements between the Canadian Crown-in-Council, with the duty to consult and accommodate.^[225] The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.^[223] These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.^[226]

Foreign relations and military

The Canadian delegation to the United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, May 1945^[227]

Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions.^[228] Canada's foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions, international organizations, and the work of numerous federal institutions.^[229][230] Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image.^[231][232] The strategy of the Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Sustainable Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.^[233]

Canada and the United States have a long, complex, and intertwined relationship;^[234][235] they are close allies, co-operating regularly on military campaigns and humanitarian efforts.^[236][237] Canada also maintains historic and traditional ties to the United Kingdom and to France,^[238] along with both countries' former colonies through its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.^[239] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II.^[98] Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the World Trade Organization, the G20, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).^[228] Canada is also a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs.^[240] Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976.^[241] The country joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the 3rd Summit of the Americas in 2001.^[242] Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).^[243]

Canada's earlier strong attachment to the British Empire and, later, the Commonwealth, led it to make significant contributions to British military efforts in the Second Boer War (1899–1902), the First World War (1914–1918), and the Second World War (1939–1945).^[244] Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.^[245][246] During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), in cooperation with the United States, to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.^[247]

A Canadian McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet in "special markings" used by the 2014 CF-18 Demonstration Team^[248]

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future prime minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.^[249] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.^[250] Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,^[91] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere. Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia affair.^[251]

In 2001, Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the US stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led International Security Assistance Force.^[252] In August 2007, Canada's territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.^[253]

The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel—increasing to 71,500 and 30,000 respectively under "Strong, Secure, Engaged"^[254]—with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 Canadian Rangers.^{[255][lower-alpha 3]} In 2021, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately $26.4 billion, or around 1.3 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP).^[257] Canada's total military expenditure is expected to reach $32.7 billion by 2027.^[258] Canada's military currently has over 3000 personnel deployed overseas in multiple operations, such as Operation Snowgoose in Cyprus, Operation Unifier supporting Ukraine, Operation Caribbe in the Caribbean Sea, and Operation Impact, a coalition for the military intervention against ISIL.^[259]

Provinces and territories

Political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories^[260]

Canada is a federation composed of 10 federated states, called provinces, and three federal territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).^[261] Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as healthcare, education, and welfare,^[262] as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, a rarity among other federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas such as health and child care; the provinces can opt out of these cost-share programs but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.^[263]

The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown^[264] and power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada^[265] and the commissioners represent the King in his federal Council,^[266] rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively^[267] and any changes to that arrangement require a constitutional amendment, while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.^[268]

Science and technology

In 2020, Canada spent approximately $41.9 billion on domestic research and development, with supplementary estimates for 2022 at $43.2 billion.^[304] As of 2023, the country has produced 15 Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine.^[305] The country ranks seventh in the worldwide share of articles published in scientific journals, according to the Nature Index,^[306] and is home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.^[307] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total population.^[308]

The Canadian-built Space Shuttle robotic arm (left), referred to as Canadarm, transferred the P5 truss segment over to the Canadian-built space station robotic arm, referred to as Canadarm2.^[309]

Canada's developments in science and technology include the creation of the modern alkaline battery,^[310] the discovery of insulin,^[311] the development of the polio vaccine,^[312] and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus.^[313] Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex,^[314][315] the development of the electron microscope,^[316][317] plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology, and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1.^[318] Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor, and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis, and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.^[315][319]

The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research and developing rockets and satellites.^[320] Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the Soviet Union and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch.^[321] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2, Canadarm3 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle.^[322] Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS, and MOST.^[323] Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant.^[324]

Ethnicity

According to the 2021 Canadian census, over 450 "ethnic or cultural origins" were self-reported by Canadians.^[341] The major panethnic groups chosen were: European (52.5 percent), North American (22.9 percent), Asian (19.3 percent), North American Indigenous (6.1 percent), African (3.8 percent), Latin, Central and South American (2.5 percent), Caribbean (2.1 percent), Oceanian (0.3 percent), and other (6 percent).^[341][342] Over 60 percent of Canadians reported a single origin, and 36 percent of Canadians reported having multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.^[341]

The top 168 ethnic or cultural origins self-reported by Canadians in the 2021 census^[343]

The country's ten largest self-reported specific ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian^{[lower-alpha 4]} (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), Indian (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).^[347]

Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4 million reported being "White", representing 69.8 percent of the population.^[348] The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.^[348] One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,^{[349][lower-alpha 5]} the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent), and Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent).^[351]

Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.^[352] In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups.^[353] The 2021 census indicated that 8.3 million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3 percent.^[354] In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.^[355]

Languages

Approximately 98 percent of Canadians can speak either or both English and French:^[356]

  English – 57%

  English and French – 16%

  French – 21%

  Sparsely populated area (< 0.4 persons per km²)

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively.^[339] As of the 2021 census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Mandarin (679,255 first-language speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), German (272,865), and Tamil (237,890).^[339] Canada's federal government practises official bilingualism, which is applied by the commissioner of official languages in consonance with section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the federal Official Languages Act. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.^[357]

Quebec's 1974 Official Language Act established French as the only official language of the province.^[358] Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.^[359] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population.^[360] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and in central and western Prince Edward Island.^[361]

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.^[362] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.^[363] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.^[364] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in the territory.^[365]

Additionally, Canada is home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.^[366] American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.^[367] Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec.^[368]

Religion

Freedom of religion sculpture by Marlene Hilton Moore at the McMurtry Gardens of Justice in Toronto^[369]

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs.^[370] The Constitution of Canada refers to God and the monarch carries the title of Defender of the Faith; however, Canada has no official church and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism.^[371] Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.^[372]

Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1970s.^[370] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,^[373] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.^{[374][375][376]} Although the majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,^[377] they still believe in God.^[378] The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter throughout Canadian society and by the state.^[379]

According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics representing 29.9 percent of the population having the most adherents. Christians overall representing 53.3 percent of the population,^{[lower-alpha 6]} are followed by people reporting irreligion or having no religion at 34.6 percent.^[382] Other faiths include Islam (4.9 percent), Hinduism (2.3 percent), Sikhism (2.1 percent), Buddhism (1.0 percent), Judaism (0.9 percent), and Indigenous spirituality (0.2 percent).^[383] Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population, behind India.^[384]

Symbols

The mother beaver on the Canadian parliament's Peace Tower.^[443] The five flowers on the shield each represent an ethnicity—Tudor rose: English; Fleur de lis: French; thistle: Scottish; shamrock: Irish; and leek: Welsh.

Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.^[444] Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, cold climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.^[445] The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags and on the Arms of Canada.^[446] Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", has four colours that reflect the colours of the maple leaf as it changes through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling.^[447] The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after those of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.^[448]

Other prominent symbols include the national motto, "A mari usque ad mare" ("From Sea to Sea"),^[449] the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,^[446] and, more recently, the totem pole and Inuksuk.^[450] Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts, and poutine are defined as uniquely Canadian.^[450][451] Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece, and the beaver on the nickel.^[452] An image of the previous monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, appears on $20 bank notes and the obverse of all current Canadian coins.^[452]

Literature

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.^[453] The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.^[454] This progressed into three major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all three of which tie into the garrison mentality.^[455] In recent decades, Canada's literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world.^[456] By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.^[457]

Numerous Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards,^[458] including novelist, poet, and literary critic Margaret Atwood, who received two Booker Prizes;^[459] Nobel laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English;^[460] and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who wrote the novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture.^[461] L. M. Montgomery produced a series of children's novels beginning in 1908 with Anne of Green Gables.^[462]

Media

A Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) satellite truck, used for live television broadcasts

Canada's media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse, and very regionalized.^[463][464] The Broadcasting Act declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada".^[465] Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.^[466] As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).^[467]

Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations".^[468] The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French.^[469] In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.^[470]

Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.^[471] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.^[472] Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.^[473]

Visual arts

The Jack Pine by Tom Thomson. Oil on canvas, 1916, in the collection of the National Gallery of Canada.^[474]

Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by its Indigenous peoples,^[475] and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.^[476] The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.^[477]

The Canadian government has played a role in the development of Canadian culture through the department of Canadian Heritage, by giving grants to art galleries,^[478] as well as establishing and funding art schools and colleges across the country, and through the Canada Council for the Arts, the national public arts funder, helping artists, art galleries and periodicals, and thus contributing to the development of Canada's cultural works.^[479]

Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures, such as painter Tom Thomson and the Group of Seven.^[480] The latter were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley—were responsible for articulating the group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston and commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the group in 1926.^[481] Associated with the group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.^[482]

Music

Original publication of "O Canada" in English, 1908^[483]

Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes.^[484] Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations, and television music video channels.^[485] Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music.^[486] As a result of its cultural importance, as well as government initiatives and regulations, the Canadian music industry is one of the largest in the world,^[487] producing internationally renowned composers, musicians, and ensembles.^[488] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.^[489] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards.^[490] The Canadian Music Hall of Fame honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.^[491]

Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812.^[492] "The Maple Leaf Forever", written in 1866, was a popular patriotic song throughout English Canada and, for many years, served as an unofficial national anthem.^[493] "O Canada" also served as an unofficial national anthem for much of the 20th century and was adopted as the country's official anthem in 1980.^[494] Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French before it was adapted into English in 1906.^[495]

Sports

The Canadian men's national ice hockey team celebrates shortly after winning the gold medal final at the 2010 Winter Olympics.^[496]

The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s,^[497] culminating in the development and popularization of the major professional games of ice hockey, lacrosse, curling, basketball, baseball, soccer, and Canadian football.^[498] Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.^[499] Other sports such as golf, volleyball, skiing, cycling, swimming, badminton, tennis, bowling, and the study of martial arts are all widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.^[500] Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by Canada's Sports Hall of Fame.^[501] There are numerous other sport "halls of fame" in Canada, such as the Hockey Hall of Fame.^[501]

Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States.^[502] Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, as well as three Major League Soccer teams and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League, the Canadian Premier League, and the various curling tournaments sanctioned and organized by Curling Canada.^[503]

Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and at the Summer Olympics^[504]—though, particularly, the Winter Games as a "winter sports nation"—and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics,^[505] the 1988 Winter Olympics,^[506] the 2010 Winter Olympics,^[507][508] and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup.^[509] Most recently, Canada hosted the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games in Toronto.^[510] The country is scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States.^[511]