California moray
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Anguilliformes
Family: Muraenidae
Genus: Gymnothorax
Species:
G. mordax
Binomial name
Gymnothorax mordax
(Ayres, 1859)

The California moray (Gymnothorax mordax) is a moray eel of the family Muraenidae, found in the eastern Pacific from just north of Santa Barbara to Santa Maria Bay in Baja California.[2] They are the only species of moray eel found off California, and one of the few examples of a subtropical moray. They typically occupy boulder or cobble habitats up to 40 m in depth.[3] They can attain lengths of about 5 ft (1.52 m) and are believed to live for upwards of 22–26 years.[4] Like other morays, they have no pelvic or pectoral fins or gill covers.

Habitat and distribution

California morays are a common sight on rocky reefs surrounding islands in southern California (notably, Catalina Island in the California Channel Islands) and other islands in the Pacific.[5] Their geographic distribution extends from Point Conception, California to Magdalena Bay, Baja California.[6][7]

California moray juveniles can live in tide pools while adults live in deeper waters.[8] Adult California morays have high site fidelity, remaining in the same general location throughout their adult lives.[9]

Ecology

Symbiotic relationship

The California moray has a distinct mutualistic symbiotic relationship with red rock shrimp where the cleaner shrimp clean the moray.[10] The red rock shrimp aggregate in large populations on the moray.[11] In addition to cleaning, the cleaner shrimp help kills parasites within the mouth cavity and have been found to reach the stomach to feed on parasites.[12]

Diet

The California moray is thought to be primarily piscivorous, and appears to specialize in the kelp bass, Paralabrax clathratus.[13] However, they are opportunistic predators whose diet also consists of invertebrate prey such as octopuses, lobsters, other California morays, and red rock shrimp.[3][14]

Feeding behavior

The California moray is the apex predator in the reef, its natural habitat, as they have few natural predators and face no intense competition for prey. They are thought to be nocturnal hunters due to their elusiveness in the daytime.[15]

Although many fishes have highly expandable skulls and can use suction feeding to capture prey, the fused skulls of morays prevents this.[8] Instead, California morays (like other moray eels) have a special set of pharyngeal jaws that allows prey to be transported from their mouths into their throats. These pharyngeal jaws look like miniature versions of the oral jaws and are more mobile than pharyngeal jaws in the other fishes.[16] As an additional aid to prey transport, they have a set of depressible teeth in the roof of their mouths that fold upward as prey is swallowed.[17] Despite the bite force of the California moray varying from 32N and 467N, morays do not exhibit a preference for certain food types based on their relative bite force.[18]

The California moray's prey manipulation behaviors, including consumption and transportation, also do not vary depending on prey type. However, the time spent on prey manipulation behaviors increases as prey size increases.[19] The California moray spends more time feeding as the size of the fish and cephalopods increases. However, when consuming a cephalopod, the California moray spends a greater proportion of time on transportation than feeding. Moreover, prey size increases with the size of the individual California moray.[20] When it comes time for the moray to feed on a cephalopod, like an octopus, the cephalopod will resist by latching on the head of the moray with its tentacles. To counter the cephalopod, the moray will twist and rotate its body so the tentacles can unhinge off the body so the moray can eat the cephalopod.[21] As a California moray grows, its prey becomes larger and it stops consuming smaller organisms.

Behavior

Reproduction

The California moray is believed to mate and spawn in the warm waters off the coast of Baja Mexico, with larvae being transported northward to California during winter or El Niño Southern Oscillation events. At least one study has proposed that this species is non-reproductive in the most northern parts of its range due to the water temperature being too cold for gonadal development.[22] A study used otoliths (ear bones) of California morays from Catalina Island to estimate individuals' ages, which cross-referenced with data from the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) and revealed that the majority of individuals examined likely only arrived on Catalina Island due to an El Niño Southern Oscillation event.[23] During an ENSO event, larvae drifted north due to the northward-flowing Davidson Current. The fertilization of eggs occurs in the water, and although the pelagic larval duration (PLD) of larval G. mordax is unknown, studies on related species suggest that the larval state persists in the open ocean for several months before settling to reefs.[24]

Threats to humans

Human attacks due to the California moray are very rare but possible when venturing near them. California morays are not venomous, but they have the capability of causing deep puncture wounds with their bite. Injuries can become infected [25]

Conservation

The California moray is classified by the IUCN Red List as a species of least concern.[26] The California moray is not commercially fished, but the species does face threats from pollution and habitat degradation.[8]

However, despite their stability, California morays have still been the subject of conservation efforts. A recent study has connected the conservation efforts in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) to ecological impacts on California moray populations.[14] Within MPAs, California morays were found to be longer, older, heavier, had higher body condition, and were found in greater abundance. However, too great of an abundance was also connected to higher frequencies of cannibalism, the presence of disease, and lower growth rates.

References

  1. ↑ Smith, D.G., McCosker, J. & Tighe, K. (2019). "Gymnothorax mordax". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T195761A2414316. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T195761A2414316.en. Retrieved 10 November 2021.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is classified of least concern.
  2. ↑ Fitch, John E.; Lavenberg, Robert J. (1971). Marine Food and Game Fishes of California. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520018310.
  3. 1 2 Higgins, B. A.; Mehta, R. S. (2018-01-01). "Distribution and habitat associations of the California moray (Gymnothorax mordax) within Two Harbors, Santa Catalina Island, California". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 101 (1): 95–108. doi:10.1007/s10641-017-0684-0. ISSN 0378-1909. S2CID 24614235.
  4. ↑ Higgins, B. A.; Pearson, D.; Mehta, R. S. (2017-01-31). "El Niño episodes coincide with California moray Gymnothorax mordax settlement around Santa Catalina Island, California". Journal of Fish Biology. 90 (4): 1570–1583. doi:10.1111/jfb.13253. ISSN 0022-1112. PMID 28138961.
  5. ↑ Fitch, John E. (1971). Marine food and game fishes of California. Robert J. Lavenberg. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-01831-1. OCLC 201913.
  6. ↑ Pacific, Aquarium of the. "California Moray". www.aquariumofpacific.org. Retrieved 2021-11-10.
  7. ↑ Dale, Katherine E; Ramírez-Valdez, Arturo; McCosker, John E; Love, Milton S (2021-04-01). "Revising geographic distributions of eastern Pacific moray eels". Bulletin of Marine Science. 97 (2): 305–326. doi:10.5343/bms.2020.0060. ISSN 0007-4977. S2CID 234242184.
  8. 1 2 3 "California moray (Gymnothorax mordax)". Monterey Bay Aquarium. Archived from the original on 2020-11-16.
  9. ↑ Mehta, R.S.; Dale, K.E.; Higgins, B.A. (12 June 2020). "Marine Protection Induces Morphological Variation in the California Moray, Gymnothorax mordax". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 60 (2): 522–534. doi:10.1093/icb/icaa061. PMID 32497193. Retrieved 2022-12-20.
  10. ↑ McCosker, John E. (2006-02-15). "CHAPTER 21. Symbiotic Relationships". The Ecology of Marine Fishes. University of California Press. pp. 555–554. doi:10.1525/9780520932470-023. ISBN 978-0-520-93247-0. S2CID 226773280.
  11. ↑ Bauer, Raymond; Newman, William (2004-02-01). "Protandric Simultaneous Hermaphroditism in the Marine Shrimp Lysmata Californica (Caridea: Hippolytidae)". Journal of Crustacean Biology. 24: 131–139. doi:10.1651/C-2426. S2CID 86019624.
  12. ↑ Limbaugh, Conrad (1961). "Cleaning Symbiosis". Scientific American. 205 (2): 42–49. Bibcode:1961SciAm.205b..42L. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0861-42. ISSN 0036-8733. JSTOR 24937035.
  13. ↑ Higgins, Benjamin, A. (2018). "Functional Ecology and Metabolics of the California Moray ( Gymnothorax mordax)". ProQuest 2088507721 – via ProQuest.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. 1 2 Mehta, Rita S.; Dale, Katherine E.; Higgins, Benjamin A. (2020). "Marine Protection Induces Morphological Variation in the California Moray, Gymnothorax mordax". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 60 (2): 522–534. doi:10.1093/icb/icaa061. PMID 32497193. Retrieved 2021-11-10.
  15. ↑ Higgins, B. A.; Mehta, R. S. (2018-01-01). "Distribution and habitat associations of the California moray (Gymnothorax mordax) within Two Harbors, Santa Catalina Island, California". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 101 (1): 95–108. doi:10.1007/s10641-017-0684-0. ISSN 0378-1909. S2CID 24614235.
  16. ↑ Mehta, Rita S.; Wainwright, Peter C. (September 2007). "Raptorial jaws in the throat help moray eels swallow large prey". Nature. 449 (7158): 79–82. Bibcode:2007Natur.449...79M. doi:10.1038/nature06062. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 17805293. S2CID 4384411.
  17. ↑ Harrison, Jacob S.; Higgins, Benjamin A.; Mehta, Rita S. (2017-06-01). "Scaling of dentition and prey size in the California moray (Gymnothorax mordax)". Zoology. 122: 16–26. doi:10.1016/j.zool.2017.02.002. ISSN 0944-2006. PMID 28236504.
  18. ↑ Higgins, Benjamin A.; Law, Chris J.; Mehta, Rita S. (2018-11-01). "Eat whole and less often: ontogenetic shift reveals size specialization on kelp bass by the California moray eel, Gymnothorax mordax". Oecologia. 188 (3): 875–887. Bibcode:2018Oecol.188..875H. doi:10.1007/s00442-018-4260-x. ISSN 1432-1939. PMC 6208710. PMID 30229354.
  19. ↑ Diluzio, Amber R.; Baliga, Vikram B.; Higgins, Benjamin A.; Mehta, Rita S. (June 2017). "Effects of prey characteristics on the feeding behaviors of an apex marine predator, the California moray ( Gymnothorax mordax)". Zoology. 122: 80–89. doi:10.1016/j.zool.2017.03.002. ISSN 0944-2006. PMID 28372850.
  20. ↑ Higgins, Benjamin A.; Law, Chris J.; Mehta, Rita S. (November 2018). "Eat whole and less often: ontogenetic shift reveals size specialization on kelp bass by the California moray eel, Gymnothorax mordax". Oecologia. 188 (3): 875–887. Bibcode:2018Oecol.188..875H. doi:10.1007/s00442-018-4260-x. ISSN 0029-8549. PMC 6208710. PMID 30229354.
  21. ↑ MacGinitie, G. E. (1938). "Notes on the Natural History of Some Marine Animals". The American Midland Naturalist. 19 (1): 207–219. doi:10.2307/2420431. ISSN 0003-0031. JSTOR 2420431.
  22. ↑ Kim., McCleneghan. The ecology and behavior of the California moray eel Gymnothorax mordax (Ayres, 1859) with descriptions of its larva and the leptocephali of some other East Pacific muraenidae. OCLC 50234201.
  23. ↑ Higgins, B. A.; Pearson, D.; Mehta, R. S. (2017-01-31). "El Niño episodes coincide with California moray Gymnothorax mordax settlement around Santa Catalina Island, California". Journal of Fish Biology. 90 (4): 1570–1583. doi:10.1111/jfb.13253. ISSN 0022-1112. PMID 28138961.
  24. ↑ Huang, Wen-Chien; Chang, Jui-Tsung; Liao, Chun; Tawa, Atsushi; Iizuka, Yoshiyuki; Liao, Te-Yu; Shiao, Jen-Chieh (2018-05-09). "Pelagic larval duration, growth rate, and population genetic structure of the tidepool snake moray Uropterygius micropterus around the southern Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, and the central Philippines". PeerJ. 6: e4741. doi:10.7717/peerj.4741. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 5949063. PMID 29761056.
  25. ↑ Warrell, David A (2013). "Animals Hazardous to Humans". Hunter's Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Disease: 938–965. doi:10.1016/B978-1-4160-4390-4.00134-X. ISBN 9781416043904. PMC 7152310.
  26. ↑ Academy), John McCosker (Cal; Smith (Smithsonian ), David; Tighe (Smithsonian), Kenneth (2011-08-18). "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Gymnothorax mordax". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. doi:10.2305/iucn.uk.2019-1.rlts.t195761a2414316.en.
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