The redemption (buying back) of Christian captives by Mercedarian friars in the Barbary states
The Barbary Coast

The Barbary slave trade involved slave markets in the Barbary states. European slaves were acquired by Muslim Barbary pirates in slave raids on ships and by raids on coastal towns from Italy to the Netherlands, Ireland and the southwest of Britain, as far north as Iceland and into the Eastern Mediterranean.

The Ottoman Eastern Mediterranean was the scene of intense piracy.[1] As late as the 18th century, piracy continued to be a "consistent threat to maritime traffic in the Aegean".[2]

Extent

Turk and clergyman with Christian slaves. Jan Luyken, 1684

The authorities of Ottoman and pre-Ottoman times kept no relevant official records, but observers in the late 1500s and early 1600s estimated that around 35,000 European slaves were held throughout this period on the Barbary Coast, across Tripoli and Tunis, but mostly in Algiers. The majority were sailors (particularly those who were English), taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers. However, most of these captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Italy.[3]

Robert Davis, author of Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters, estimates that slave traders from Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli enslaved 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans in North Africa, from the beginning of the 16th century to the middle of the 18th century.[4] To extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates remained roughly constant for a 250-year period.[5]

Other historians have challenged Davis's numbers.[5]

Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers. Jan Luyken, 1684

John Wright cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation.[6] A second book by Davis, Holy War and Human Bondage: Tales of Christian-Muslim Slavery in the Early-Modern Mediterranean, widened its focus to related slavery.[7]

From bases on the Barbary coast, North Africa, the Barbary pirates raided ships traveling through the Mediterranean and along the northern and western coasts of Africa, plundering their cargo and enslaving the people they captured. From at least 1500, the pirates also conducted raids on seaside towns of Italy, Spain, France, England, the Netherlands, Ireland, and as far away as Iceland, capturing men, women and children. In 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa captured the island of Ischia, taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 2,000–7,000 inhabitants of Lipari.[8][9] In 1551, Ottoman corsair Dragut enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo, between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Ottoman Tripolitania. In 1554 corsairs under Dragut sacked Vieste, beheaded 5,000 of its inhabitants, and abducted another 6,000.[10] The Balearic Islands were invaded in 1558, and 4,000 people were taken into slavery.[11] In 1618 the Algerian pirates attacked the Canary Islands taking 1000 captives to be sold as slaves.[12] On some occasions, settlements such as Baltimore in Ireland were abandoned following a raid, only being resettled many years later. Between 1609 and 1616, England alone lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates.[13]

1816 illustration of Christian slaves in Algiers

While Barbary corsairs looted the cargo of ships they captured, their primary goal was to capture non-Muslim people for sale as slaves or for ransom. Those who had family or friends who might ransom them were held captive; the most famous of these was the author Miguel de Cervantes, who was held for almost five years – from 1575 to 1580. Others were sold into various types of servitude. Captives who converted to Islam were generally freed, since enslavement of Muslims was prohibited; but this meant that they could never return to their native countries.[14][15]

Customs' statistics from the 16th and 17th century suggest that Istanbul's additional slave imports from the Black Sea may have totaled around 2.5 million from 1450 to 1700.[16] The markets declined after Sweden and the United States defeated the Barbary States in the Barbary Wars (1800–1815). A US Navy expedition under Commodore Edward Preble engaged gunboats and fortifications in Tripoli in 1804. A British diplomatic mission to Algiers led to the Dey to agree to release some Sardinian slaves. However, the moment the British left, the Dey ordered the Sardinians massacred; the same fleet joined by some Dutch warships returned and delivered a nine-hour bombardment of Algiers in 1816 leading to the Dey accepting a new agreement in which he promised to end his slavery operations. Despite this, the trade continued, only ending with the French conquest of Algeria (1830–1847). The Kingdom of Morocco had already suppressed piracy by then.

Origins

North African piracy had very ancient origins. It gained a political significance during the 16th century, mainly through Barbarossa (Khayr al-Dīn), who united Algeria and Tunisia as military states under the Ottoman sultanate and maintained his revenues by piracy. With the arrival of powerful Moorish bands in Rabat and Tétouan (1609), Morocco became a new centre for the pirates and for the ʿAlawī sultans, who quickly gained control of the two republics and encouraged piracy as a valuable source of revenue. During the 17th century, the Algerian and Tunisian pirates joined forces, and by 1650 more than 30,000 of their captives were imprisoned in Algiers alone.[17]

The towns on the North African coast were recorded in Roman times for their slave markets, and this trend continued into the medieval age. The Barbary Coast increased in influence in the 15th century, when the Ottoman Empire took over as rulers of the area. Coupled with this was an influx of Sephardi Jews[18] and Moorish refugees, newly expelled from Spain after the Reconquista.

With Ottoman protection and a host of destitute immigrants, the coastline soon became reputed for piracy. Crews from the seized ships were either enslaved or ransomed. Between 1580 and 1680, there were in Barbary around 15,000 renegades, Christian Europeans who converted to Islam, and half of the corsair captains were in fact renegades. Some of them were slaves that converted to Islam but most had probably never been slaves and had come to North Africa looking for opportunity.[19]

Rise of the Barbary pirates

The bombardment of Algiers in 1682, by Abraham Duquesne.

After a revolt in the mid-17th century reduced the ruling Ottoman Pashas to little more than figureheads in the region, the towns of Tripoli, Algiers, Tunis, and others became independent in all but name. Without a large central authority and its laws, the pirates themselves started to gain much influence.

In 1785 when Thomas Jefferson and John Adams went to London to negotiate with Tripoli's envoy, Ambassador Sidi Haji Abdrahaman, they asked him what right he had to take slaves in this way. He replied that the "right" was "founded on the Laws of the Prophet, that it was written in their Koran that all nations who should not have answered their authority were sinners, that it was their right and duty to make war upon them wherever they could be found, and to make slaves of all they could take as prisoners, and that every Mussulman who should be slain in battle was sure to go to Paradise".[20]

Pirate raids for the acquisition of slaves occurred in towns and villages on the African Atlantic seaboard, as well as in Europe. Reports of Barbary raids and kidnappings of those in Italy, Spain, France, Portugal, England, Netherlands, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and as far north as Iceland exist from between the 16th to the 19th centuries. Robert Davis estimated that between 1 and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by pirates and sold as slaves in Tunis, Algiers and Tripoli during this time period. The slave trade in Europeans in other parts of the Mediterranean is not included in this estimation. However, other historians such as David Earle have questioned Robert Davis' estimates: “His figures sound a bit dodgy and I think he may be exaggerating.”[21]

Famous accounts of Barbary slave raids include a mention in the diary of Samuel Pepys and a raid on the coastal village of Baltimore, Ireland, during which pirates left with the entire populace of the settlement. The attack was led by a Dutch captain, Jan Janszoon van Haarlem, also known as Murad Reis the Younger. Janszoon also led the 1627 raid on Iceland. About 50 people were killed and close to 400 captured and sold into slavery.[22] Such raids in the Mediterranean were so frequent and devastating that the coastline between Venice and Málaga[23] suffered widespread depopulation, and settlement there was discouraged. In fact, it was said that "there was no one left to capture any longer."[19]

In 1627 a group known as the Salé Rovers, from the Republic of Salé (now Salé in Morocco) occupied Lundy for five years. These Barbary Pirates, under the command of Janszoon, flew an Ottoman flag over the island. Slaving raids were made embarking from Lundy by the Barbary Pirates, and captured Europeans were held on Lundy before being sent to Algiers to be sold as slaves.[24][25][26][27]

The power and influence of these pirates during this time was such that nations including the United States paid tribute to stave off their attacks.[28]

An account of the later phase of the trade was published in 1740 by Englishman Thomas Pellow, who had escaped from Morocco after 21 years of slavery, having been captured from a ship in 1716 as an 11-year-old boy.[29]

Slave sources by nation

Between the 16th-century and the early 19th-century, the Barbary slave trade in South and West Europe was one of two major slave routes for European slaves to the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, the other being the contemporary Crimean slave trade in Eastern Europe.

The Barbary corsairs attacked a number of different nations in Southern and Western Europe, as well as the Americas. Some of the nations were exclusively attacked by sea, while others were also subjected to slave raids on land. Each nation had their own policy in order to adress the issue, and different European governments maintained negotiations with the Barbary states in order to pay ransom for captives, prevent attacks on their ships or raids on their coasts.

British islands

The British islands were attacked by the Barbary Corsairs pirates both on sea and by raids on land. The Irish Sea was infamous for being frequented by barbary pirates.

In 1620-1621, the government of James VI and I maintained long negotiations to prevent attacks, but did not succeed.[30]

In the 1620s and 1640s, the coasts of Cornwall and Devon in England, as well as Southern Ireland, was subjected to slave raids by barbary corsairs, who raided the coasts after having attacked ships outside of the coasts. Women was particularly prioritised as captives by the corsairs.[31] The Southwest of England were subjected to repeated slave raids by barbary corsairs in 1625-1626.[30] In the summer of 1625, the barbary corsairs attacked ships in the Bristol Channel, which was followed by slave raids in Mount's Bay, from which around sixty men, women and children were abducted to slavery.[32] In 1645, around 200 men, women and children were abducted by a big slave raid near Fowey in Cornwall and taken as slaves to North Africa.[33] The number of captives at this occasion was possibly as high as 240, some of whom were "gentlewomen".[34]

The perhaps most historically famous of the British slave raids were the Sack of Baltimore by corsairs from Alger toward the coast village of Baltimore in West Cork on Ireland on 20 June 1631, which was the largest slave raid by Barbary slave traders on Ireland.[35][36] A couple of years after the Sack of Baltimore of 1631, the Irish village Dungarvon were also attacked by a slave raid resulting in around fifty captives.[37]

England assigned agents to North Africa to buy back English citizens who was being held as slaves. In December 1640, the situation was to serious that a government committee, the Committee for Algiers, was formed to buy back English slaves from Algeria, which was then estimated to reach a number between 3,000 and 5,000 just in the city of Alger.[38] In 1643, so many English people had been taken as slaves to Alger that the English government called for a national collection of ransom money from all the curches in the Kingdom to make it possible to buy them free. To buy female slaves free was much more expensive than to buy back men.[39]

Among the British victims of the Barbary slave trade were Helen Gloag, Lalla Balqis and Elizabeth Marsh.

Denmark-Norway

The Kingdom of Denmark-Norway were attacked by the barbary corsairs both on sea and by slave raids.

The Faroe Islands, which belonged to Denmark, were subjected to repeated slave raids by the barbary corsairs in the 16th- and 18th-century. In 1607, the Faroe Islands were raided by the corsairs who abducted many people to slavery.[40]

The most famous slave raid on the Faroe Islands where the Slave raid of Suðuroy in the summer of 1629, in which thirty people were abducted to slavery, from which they never returned.[41]

France

The Franco-Ottoman alliance, which lasted between 1536 and 1798, placed France in a different position than other European nations in the context. The Franco-Ottoman alliance formally protected France more than other nations from attacks of the corsairs, who formally were Ottoman subjects. In contrast to other European nations France could complain over the corsairs to the Ottoman sultan, who would be obligated to take action because of the Franco-Ottoman alliance. The Ottoman sultan did not support Ottoman attacks on French ships or raids of French coasts, and in contrast to the attacks on many other nations, the attacks on French ships and coasts were formally considered illegal also by the Ottomans.[42]

In practice however the corsair states of North Africa were Ottoman in name only and did not necessarily respect the obligations of the Ottoman sultan, who had weak control over the provinces, and France were subjected to their attacks despite the Franco-Ottoman alliance.

During the 1550s the French provinces of Provence and Languedoc were devastated by slave razzias by the corsairs, which resulted in French complaints to the Ottoman sultan, and the city of Marseilles petitioned regent Catherine de Medici as well as taking separate measures to liberate enslaved natives and protect their commerce vessels, and reported to have lost twelve galleons aside from a large number of smaller boats. [43]

Sultan Suleyman ordered the corsairs to leave French vessels alone in 1565, [44] out of respect for the alliance. However, such orders from the Ottoman sultans only placed a slight inhibition on the corsairs in regard to France, rather than to protect them fully. There were several slave raids toward France, such as for example in on Northern France close to Calais in 1620.[45]

Iceland

Iceland was subjected to several slave raids by the corsairs. In 1607, Iceland were raided by the corsairs who abducted many people to slavery.[46]

The most famous slave raid on Iceland was the Turkish Abductions that took place in the summer of 1627.[22] About 400 people were captured and sold into slavery,[22] of whom only 50 individuals returned from slavery by ransom, 9 to 18 years later.[47][22]

Malta

Malta was subjected to slave raids by the corsairs. In 1551, Turgut Reis and Sinan Pasha raided the islands of Malta and Gozo, [48] and the entire population of Gozo was abducted and sold as slaves in Libya.[49]

The Netherlands

No slave raids were performed against the coasts of The Netherlands. Dutch ships were however a frequent target of corsair pirates. The Dutch government regularly assigned agents to buy back Dutch citizens captured and enslaved in North Africa. Dutch slaves were reportedly among the highest priced, and the corsairs demanded higher prices from them than for many other Europeans.[50]

Spain

Spain was one of the worst affected areas in all Europe to attacks by the corsairs. Both Spanish ships as well as coasts were subjected to attacks by the corsairs from the early 16th-century onward.

The Corsairs of Tunis mainly raided the Sea and coasts of Italy and Greece, while the Corsairs of Algiers and Morocco frequented the waters and coasts of Spain and Western Europe.[51]

The slave raids on Spain started in the early 16th-century onward. The slave raids grew particularly severe during the 17th-century, when the corsairs abducted the population of entire villages along the Mediterranean coast of Spain, leaving large coastal areas depopulated.[52] In 1637 for example, 315 women and children were captured from the town of Calpe.[53] When the coastal villages depopulated, the Spanish crown was forced to raise the taxes of fish, meat, cattle and silk to finance the construction of fortresses to protect the coast and prevent people from leaving the areas for safer settlements in the interior of the country.[54]

Spanish ships were affected as well. In 1667, so many seamen had been abducted from the Basque provinces that those provinces could no longer will the quotas of seamen to the Spanish marines. [55]

The slave raids in Spain and Italy damaged the population and in consequence the economy in the entire Mediterranean.[56]

United states

See also: Barbary wars

The were no Barbary land raids in the United states. However, the barbary pirates attacked American ships, took American captives and sold them as slaves.

During the American Revolutionary War, the pirates attacked American ships. On December 20, 1777, Morocco's sultan Mohammed III declared that merchant ships of the new American nation would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage into the Mediterranean and along the coast. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship stands as America's oldest unbroken friendship treaty[57][58] with a foreign power. In 1787, Morocco became one of the first nations to recognize the United States of America.[59]

Starting in the 1780s, realizing that American vessels were no longer under the protection of the British navy, the Barbary pirates had started seizing American ships in the Mediterranean. As the U.S. had disbanded its Continental Navy and had no seagoing military force, its government agreed in 1786 to pay tribute to stop the attacks.[60] On March 20, 1794, at the urging of President George Washington, Congress voted to authorize the building of six heavy frigates and establish the United States Navy, in order to stop these attacks and demands for more and more money.[61]

The United States had signed treaties with all of the Barbary states after its independence was recognized between 1786 and 1794 to pay tribute in exchange for leaving American merchantmen alone, and by 1797, the United States had paid out $1.25 million or a fifth of the government's annual budget then in tribute.[62]

The barbary attacks on American ships was a contributing cause of the Americans participating in the Barbary wars.

Decline

A US Navy expedition under Commodore Edward Preble engaging gunboats and fortifications in Tripoli, 1804.

In the first years of the 19th century, the United States, allied with European nations, fought and won the First and the Second Barbary Wars against the pirates. The wars were a direct response of the American, British, French and the Dutch states to the raids and the slave trade by the Barbary pirates against them, which ended in the 1830s, when the region was conquered by France. The Barbary slave trade and slave markets in the Mediterranean declined and eventually disappeared after the European occupations.[16]

After an Anglo-Dutch bombardment in 1816 of Algiers on 27 August, led by Admiral Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth, disabled most of the Pirate fleet, the Dey of Algiers was forced to agree to terms which included the release of the surviving 1,200 slaves (mostly from Sardinia) and the cessation of their practice of enslaving Europeans. After being defeated in this period of formal hostilities with European and American powers, the Barbary states went into decline.[16]

The Barbary pirates refused to cease their slaving operations, resulting in another bombardment by a Royal Navy fleet against Algiers in 1824. France invaded Algiers in 1830, placing it under colonial rule. Tunis was similarly invaded by France in 1881. Tripoli returned to direct Ottoman control in 1835, before falling into Italian hands in the 1911 Italo-Turkish War. As such, the slave traders now found that they had to work in accordance with the laws of their governors, and could no longer look to self-regulation. The slave trade ceased on the Barbary coast in the 19th and 20th centuries or when European governments passed laws granting emancipation to slaves.[16]

The word razzia was borrowed via Italian and French from Maghrebi Arabic ghaziya (Arabic: غزية, lit. 'raiding'), originally referring to slave raids conducted by Barbary pirates.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Bradford, Ernle (1968). Sultan's Admiral. the Life of Barbarossa (First ed.). Harcourt Brace World.
  2. ↑ Ginio, Eyal (2001). "Piracy and Redemption in the Aegean Sea during the First Half of the Eighteenth Century". Turcica. 33: 135–147. doi:10.2143/TURC.33.0.484. consistent threat to maritime traffic in the Aegean
  3. ↑ Davis, Robert (17 Feb 2011). "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". BBC.
  4. ↑ Davis, Robert C. (2003). Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 23. ISBN 978-0333719664.
  5. 1 2 Carroll, Rory (11 Mar 2004). "New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe". the Guardian. Retrieved 26 Sep 2023.
  6. ↑ Wright, John (2007). "Trans-Saharan Slave Trade". Routledge. ISBN 978-0415380461.
  7. ↑ Robert Davis, Holy War and Human Bondage: Tales of Christian-Muslim Slavery in the Early-Modern Mediterranean, Praeger Series on the Early Modern World (2010). ISBN 978-0275989507
  8. ↑ Syed, Muzaffar Husain; Akhtar, Syed Saud; Usmani, B. D. (2011). Concise History of Islam. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. ISBN 978-9382573470.
  9. ↑ Her Majesty's Commission, State Papers (1849). King Henry the Eighth Volume 10 Part V Foreign Correspondence 1544–45. London.
  10. ↑ Mercati, Angelo (1982). Saggi di storia e letteratura, vol. II. Rome.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  11. ↑ Carr, Matthew, Blood and Faith: the Purging of Muslim Spain (Leiden, 1968), p. 120.
  12. ↑ John Mercer (1980), The Canary Islanders : their prehistory, conquest, and survival, p. 236, Collings.
  13. ↑ Rees Davies, "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast", BBC, 1 July 2003
  14. ↑ Diego de Haedo, Topografía e historia general de Argel, 3 vols., Madrid, 1927–29.
  15. ↑ Daniel Eisenberg, "¿Por qué volvió Cervantes de Argel?", in Ingeniosa invención: Essays on Golden Age Spanish Literature for Geoffrey L. Stagg in Honor of his Eighty-Fifth Birthday, Newark, Delaware, Juan de la Cuesta, 1999, ISBN 978-0936388830, pp. 241–253, http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/por-qu-volvi-cervantes-de-argel-0/, retrieved 11/20/2014.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Eltis, David; Bradley, Keith; Engerman, Stanley L.; Cartledge, Paul (2011). The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3, AD 1420–AD 1804. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521840682.
  17. ↑ "Barbary pirate | Definition, Dates, Significance, & Wars | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  18. ↑ Gerber, Jane (1992). The Jews of Spain. US: The Free Press. pp. 119–125. ISBN 0029115744.
  19. 1 2 "BBC – History – British History in depth: British Slaves on the Barbary Coast".
  20. ↑ Hitchens, Christopher (2007-01-09). "Jefferson's Quran". Slate. ISSN 1091-2339. Retrieved 2016-01-06.
  21. ↑ "When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggests White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed". Ohio State News. 2004-03-08. Archived from the original on 2018-01-22. Retrieved 2018-02-27.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Þorsteinn Helgason. "Hvaða heimildir eru til um Tyrkjaránið?". Vísindavefurinn (in Icelandic). Retrieved 2020-12-06.
  23. ↑ "BBC – History – British History in depth: British Slaves on the Barbary Coast".
  24. ↑ Giles Milton (2005). White Gold: The Forgotten Story of North Africa's One Million European Slaves. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0340895092.
  25. ↑ de Bruxelles, Simon (28 February 2007). "Pirates who got away with it". The Times. London. Retrieved 25 November 2007.
  26. ↑ Konstam, Angus (2008). Piracy: the complete history. Osprey Publishing. p. 91. ISBN 978-1846032400.
  27. ↑ Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 561. ISBN 978-0198201717.
  28. ↑ "About this Collection – Thomas Jefferson Papers, 1606–1827".
  29. ↑ Milton 2005, p. 267
  30. 1 2 "Jeremy Black: A Brief History of Slavery: A New Global History".
  31. ↑ Capp, B. (2022). British Slaves and Barbary Corsairs, 1580-1750. Storbritannien: OUP Oxford. p. 31
  32. ↑ Capp, B. (2022). British Slaves and Barbary Corsairs, 1580-1750. Storbritannien: OUP Oxford. p. 31
  33. ↑ Boulton, C. (2019). Five Million Tides: A Biography of the Helford River. Storbritannien: History Press.
  34. ↑ Capp, B. (2022). British Slaves and Barbary Corsairs, 1580-1750. Storbritannien: OUP Oxford. p. 31
  35. ↑ Domhnaill, Rónán Gearóid Ó (2015-04-28). Fadó Fadó: More Tales of Lesser-Known Irish History. Troubador Publishing Ltd. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-78462-230-5.
  36. ↑ Wilson, Peter Lamborn (2003). Pirate Utopias: Moorish Corsairs & European Renegadoes. Autonomedia. pp. 119, 121. ISBN 978-1-57027-158-8.
  37. ↑ Capp, B. (2022). British Slaves and Barbary Corsairs, 1580-1750. Storbritannien: OUP Oxford. p. 31
  38. ↑ Barbary Pirates and English Slaves
  39. ↑ Milton, G. (2012). White Gold. Storbritannien: John Murray Press.
  40. ↑ Liisberg, H. C. B. (2020). Danmarks søfart og søhandel. Bind 1. Danmark: SAGA Egmont.
  41. ↑ Niels Andreas Christian Andersen (1895). Faerøerne, 1600-1709 (in Danish). New York Public Library. G. E. C. Gad. pp. 234–254.
  42. ↑ Weiss, G. (2011). Captives and Corsairs: France and Slavery in the Early Modern Mediterranean. USA: Stanford University Press. p. 9
  43. ↑ Weiss, G. (2011). Captives and Corsairs: France and Slavery in the Early Modern Mediterranean. USA: Stanford University Press. p. 9
  44. ↑ Weiss, G. (2011). Captives and Corsairs: France and Slavery in the Early Modern Mediterranean. USA: Stanford University Press. p. 9
  45. ↑ Hershenzon, D. (2018). The Captive Sea: Slavery, Communication, and Commerce in Early Modern Spain and the Mediterranean. USA: University of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated. p. 25
  46. ↑ Liisberg, H. C. B. (2020). Danmarks søfart og søhandel. Bind 1. Danmark: SAGA Egmont.
  47. ↑ Þorsteinn Helgason. "Hvað gerðist í Tyrkjaráninu?". Vísindavefurinn (in Icelandic). Retrieved 2019-06-10.
  48. ↑ Konstam, A. (2016). The Barbary Pirates 15th-17th Centuries. Storbritannien: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 18
  49. ↑ Lando, S. (2010). Europas tungomål I/II. Sverige: Nomen. p. 539
  50. ↑ Auchterlonie, P. (2012). Encountering Islam: Joseph Pitts: An English Slave in 17th-century Algiers and Mecca. Storbritannien: Arabian Publishing. p.
  51. ↑ Tinniswood, A. (2011). Pirates Of Barbary: Corsairs, Conquests and Captivity in the 17th-Century Mediterranean. Storbritannien: Random House. p. 81
  52. ↑ Giles Milton: White Gold: The Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow and North Africa's One
  53. ↑ Giles Milton: White Gold: The Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow and North Africa's One
  54. ↑ Giles Milton: White Gold: The Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow and North Africa's One
  55. ↑ Giles Milton: White Gold: The Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow and North Africa's One
  56. ↑ Black, J. (2011). A Brief History of Slavery. Storbritannien: Little, Brown Book Group.
  57. ↑ Roberts, Priscilla H. and Richard S. Roberts, Thomas Barclay 1728–1793: Consul in France, Diplomat in Barbary, Lehigh University Press, 2008, pp. 206–223.
  58. ↑ "Milestones of American Diplomacy, Interesting Historical Notes, and Department of State History". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 2007-12-17.
  59. ↑ "Cohen Renews U.S.-Morocco Ties" (mil). U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
  60. ↑ Fremont-Barnes 2006, pp. 32–33.
  61. ↑ Fremont-Barnes 2006, p. 33.
  62. ↑ Fremont-Barnes 2006, p. 36-37.

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