Opposition

Al-Muthanna's disregard for the traditional power structure of the imamate, where power was shared with the ulama, earned him opposition from their ranks. His approach to governance alienated the prominent scholars Bashir bin al-Mundhir and Muhammad bin Mahbub, who secretly renounced him. Several such malcontents convinced Musa bin Ali, the most influential scholar on the ahl al-hall wal-aqd, to dismiss al-Muhanna from office. Although Musa met with al-Muhanna intending to remove him from power, the latter refused and told him that no imam would rule for more than a year if popular opinion reigned supreme.^[7][8]

Sometime during al-Muhanna's rule, the tribes of Mahrah refused to continue paying the zakat tax to the imamate. When a Mahri individual named Wasim bin Jayfar refused to pay his due and threatened one of al-Muhanna's tax collectors, he dispatched three armed units under the command of the governors of Sinaw, Adam and Ja'lan to take the Mahri chief captive. During this expedition, Wasim was captured and imprisoned in Nizwa. He remained there for one year until Mahri sheikhs secured his release through the intercession of al-Muthanna's clan, Yahmad. Al-Muhanna offered Wasim's release in exchange for the tribes bringing camels to Nizwa annually, which they agreed to.^[9]

The most serious challenge to al-Muthanna's power was posed by the tribe of Banu al-Julanda, who held power in Oman until 702.^[10] Led by a certain al-Mughirah bin Raswan, Julandani rebels marched on Tawam where they defeated and killed the local governor, Abu al-Waddah. In response, al-Muthanna dispatched two armies to the region, one led by Abu Marwan, the governor of Sohar. His force included an Indian component whose chief was al-Mattar al-Hindi, although it is unclear whether they were mercenaries or professional soldiers. The armies scored decisive victories over the Julandanis and carried out a series of reprisals allegedly under the influence of al-Mattar's men: the Banu al-Julanda were massacred, their settlements razed and families forced to starve in the desert. Al-Muhanna later described their conduct as 'foolish' and recompensed those who had lost their homes.^[11]

Development of Ibadi theology

The controversy of Quranic createdness reached Oman during al-Muhanna's rule and became a source of contention within the Ibadi community.^[12] A debate took place between Ibadi scholars Muhammad bin Mahbub and Muhammad bin Hisham on the subject; the former argued that the Quran was created by Allah, while the latter argued against the doctrine and threatened to leave Oman if it continued to spread. Ibadi scholars convened to discuss the issue, and by the end of the meeting Muhammad bin Mahbub retracted his views on the matter. Fearful of a schism within the Ibadi community, the scholars requested al-Muhanna to forbid anyone from saying that Quran was created, to which he complied.^[13]

Al-Muhanna himself was active in clarifying and developing Ibadi doctrine. A siyar he authored, addressed to a certain Mu'adh bin Harb, expresses his views on issues of Ibadi theology and fiqh, including predestination, the shortening of prayers when travelling and the rejection of anthropomorphic views of God.^[14] In his discussion of predestination, he states that destiny and human actions originate from God's knowledge, predicated on the view that God's knowledge and determination of human actions are inseparable.^[15] In addition, he equates sin to disbelief (kufr), classifying it into two categories: disbelief through the rejection of revelation, and disbelief in the revelation through disobedience to it.^[16]

Death and legacy

Al-Muhanna died on 15 October 851/16 Rabi al-Thani 237 AH.^[2] He was succeeded as imam by Al-Salt bin Malik on the same day. In July 2017, a mosque named after al-Muhanna was opened in Oman's Barka wilayah.^[17]