Economy of Jamaica
CurrencyJamaican dollar (JMD, J$)
1 April – 31 March
Trade organisations
CARICOM, WTO
Country group
Statistics
PopulationDecrease 2,726,667 (2018)[3]
GDP
  • Increase $15.461 billion (nominal, 2018)[4]
  • Increase $27.092 billion (PPP, 2018)[4]
GDP rank
GDP growth
  • 1.9% (2018) 0.7% (2019e)
  • −6.2% (2020f) 2.7% (2021f)[5]
GDP per capita
  • Increase $5,582 (nominal, 2019 est.)[4]
  • Increase $9,473 (PPP, 2018 est.)[4]
GDP per capita rank
GDP by sector
  • agriculture: 7.5%
  • industry: 21.3%
  • services: 71.2%
  • (2017 est.)[6]
3.733% (2018)[4]
Population below poverty line
  • 17.1% (2016 est.)[7]
  • 29.7% on less than $5.50/day (2004)[8]
Positive decrease 35 medium (2016)[7]
Labour force
  • Increase 1,514,936 (2019)[11]
  • Increase 58.2% employment rate (2018)[12]
UnemploymentSteady 7.8% (July 2019)[13]
Average gross salary
J$272,604 (£1,493/$2,498)[14]
J$255,021 (£1,396/$2,337)
Main industries
tourism, bauxite/alumina, food processing, light manufactures, rum, cement, metal, paper, chemical products, telecommunications
Increase 71st (easy, 2020)[15]
External
ExportsIncrease $1.296 billion (2017 est.)[7]
Export goods
alumina, bauxite, chemicals, coffee, mineral fuels, waste and scrap metals, sugar, yams
Main export partners
ImportsIncrease $5.151 billion (2017 est.)[7]
Import goods
food and other consumer goods, industrial supplies, fuel, parts and accessories of capital goods, machinery and transport equipment, construction materials
Main import partners





FDI stock
  • $15.03 billion (2016)[7]
  • Abroad: $604 million (2016)[7]
Decrease −$679 million (2017 est.)[7]
Negative increase $14.94 billion (31 December 2017 est.)[7]
Public finances
Positive decrease 101% of GDP (2017 est.)[7]
+0.5% (of GDP) (2017 est.)[7]
Revenues4.382 billion (2017 est.)[7]
Expenses4.314 billion (2017 est.)[7]
Economic aidrecipient: $102.7 million (1995)
Increase $3.781 billion (31 December 2017 est.)[7]
Main data source: CIA World Fact Book
All values, unless otherwise stated, are in US dollars.

The economy of Jamaica is heavily reliant on services, accounting for 71% of the country's GDP.[18] Jamaica has natural resources and a climate conducive to agriculture and tourism. The discovery of bauxite in the 1940s and the subsequent establishment of the bauxite-alumina industry shifted Jamaica's economy from sugar, and bananas.[19]

Weakness in the financial sector, speculation, and lower levels of investment erode confidence in the productive sector. The government continues its efforts to raise new sovereign debt in local and international financial markets in order to meet its U.S. dollar debt obligations, to mop up liquidity to maintain the exchange rate and to help fund the current budget deficit.

The Jamaican government's economic policies encourage foreign investment in areas that earn or save foreign exchange, generate employment, and use local raw materials. The government also provides a wide range of incentives to investors.

Free trade zones have stimulated investment in garment assembly, light manufacturing, and data entry by foreign firms. However, over the last 5 years, the garment industry has suffered from reduced export earnings, continued factory closures, and rising unemployment. The Government of Jamaica hopes to encourage economic activity through a combination of privatization, financial sector restructuring, reduced interest rates, and by boosting tourism and related productive activities.

Economic history

Before independence, Jamaica's economy was largely focused on agriculture with the vast majority of the labor force engaged in the production of sugar, bananas, and tobacco.[20] According to one study, 18th century Jamaica had the highest wealth inequality in the world, as a very small, slave-owning elite was extremely wealthy while the rest of the population lived on the edge of subsistence.[21][22]

These products were mainly exported to the United Kingdom, Canada, and to the United States of America.[20] Jamaica's trade relationships expanded substantially from 1938 to 1946, with total imports almost doubling from £6,485,000 to £12,452,000.[20] After 1962, the Jamaican government pushed for economic growth and all sectors excluding bauxite/alumina, energy, and tourism had shrunk between 1998 and 1999. In 2000, Jamaica experienced its first year of positive growth since 1995 due to continued tight macroeconomic policies.[19]

Inflation fell from 25% in 1995 to single digits in 2000, reaching a multidecade low of 4.3% in 2004. Through periodic intervention in the market, the central bank also has prevented any abrupt drop in the exchange rate. The Jamaican dollar has been slipping, despite intervention, resulting in an average exchange rate of J$73.40 per US$1.00 and J136.2 per €1.00 (February 2011).[23] In addition, inflation has been trending upward since 2004 and is projected to once again reach a double digit rate of 12-13% through the year 2008 due to a combination of unfavorable weather damaging crops and increasing agricultural imports and high energy prices.[24]

Over the last 30 years, real per capita GDP increased at an average of just one percent per year, making Jamaica one of the slowest growing developing countries in the world.

To reverse this trajectory, the Government of Jamaica embarked on a comprehensive and ambitious program of reforms for which it has garnered national and international support: a four-year Extended Fund Facility (EFF) by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) providing a support package of US$932 million; World Bank Group and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) programs providing US$510 million each to facilitate the GoJ's economic reform agenda to stabilize the economy, reduce debt and create the conditions for growth and resilience.. In addition, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) will continue to support private sector development.

The reform program is beginning to bear fruit: Institutional reforms and measures to improve the environment for the private sector have started to restore confidence in the Jamaican economy. Jamaica jumped 27 places to 58 among 189 economies worldwide in the 2015 Doing Business ranking, the country's credit rating has improved and the Government has successfully raised more than US$2 billion in the international capital in the markets in 2014 and 2015..

Despite some revival, economic growth is still low: the Jamaican Government is forecasting real gross domestic product (GDP) growth of 1.9 per cent for the fiscal year 2015/2016 and the country continues to be confronted by serious social issues that predominantly affect youth, such as high levels of crime and violence and high unemployment. Jamaica, which had seen its poverty rate drop almost 20 percent over two decades, saw it increase by eight percent in a few years.

The unemployment rate in Jamaica is approximately 6.0% (April 2022, Statistical Institute of Jamaica), with youth unemployment more than twice the national rate, albeit trending downwards (15%). However, among Jamaica's assets are its skilled labor force and strong social and governance indicators.[25]

Primary industries

A proportional representation of Jamaica's exports.

Agriculture

Agricultural production is an important contributor to Jamaica's economy. However, it is vulnerable to extreme weather, such as hurricanes and to competition from neighbouring countries such as the USA. Other difficulties faced by farmers include thefts from the farm, known as praedial larceny.[26] Agricultural production accounted for 7.4% of GDP in 1997, providing employment for nearly a quarter of the country.[27] Jamaica's agriculture, together with forestry and fishing, accounted for about 6.6% of GDP in 1999. Sugar has been produced in Jamaica for centuries, it is the nation's dominant agricultural export.[27] Sugar is produced in nearly every parish. The production of raw sugar in the year 2000 was estimated at 175,000 tons, a decrease from 290,000 tons in 1978.[28]

Jamaican agriculture has been less prominent in GDP in the 2000s than other industries, hitting an all-time low between 2004 and 2008.[29] This may have been due to a reaction to increased competition as international trade policies were enacted. For example, as NAFTA was enacted in 1993, a significant amount of Caribbean exports to the United States diminished, being out competed by Latin American exports.[30] Another example is the Banana Import Regime's 3rd phase, in which EU nations had first given priority in banana imports to previously colonized nations. Under pressure by the World Trade Organization, the EU policy was altered to provide a non-discriminatory trade agreement. Jamaica's banana industry was easily outpriced by American companies exporting Latin American goods.[31] Jamaica's agriculture industry is now bouncing back, growing from being 6.6% of GDP to 7.2%.[18]

Sugar formed 7.1% of the exports in 1999 and Jamaica made up about 4.8% of the total production of sugar in the Caribbean. Sugar is also used for the production of by-products such as molasses, rum and some wallboard is made from bagasse.

Banana production in 1999 was 130,000 tons. Bananas formed 2.4% of the exports in 1999 and Jamaica formed around 7.5% of the total production of banana in the Caribbean. Jamaica stopped exporting banana in 2008 after suffering from several years of hurricanes that devastated the plantations.

Coffee is mainly grown around the Blue Mountains and in hilly areas. One type in particular, Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee, is considered among the best in the world because at those heights in the Blue Mountains, the cooler climate causes the berries to take longer to ripen and the beans develop more of the substances which on roasting give coffee its flavor. Coffee formed 1.9% of exports in 1999. The picking season lasts from August to March. The coffee is exported from Kingston.

Cocoa is grown throughout Jamaica and local sales absorb about 1/3 of the output to be made into instant drinks and confectionery. Citrus fruit is mainly grown in the central parts of Jamaica, particularly between the elevations of 1,000-2,500 feet. The picking season lasts from November to April. Two factories in Bog Walk produce fruit juices, canned fruit, essential oils and marmalade. Coconuts are grown on the northern and eastern coasts, which provide enough copra to supply factories to make butterine, margarine, lard, edible oil and laundry soap.

Vanilla is also grown.

Other export crops are pimento, ginger, tobacco, sisal and other fruit are exported. Rice is grown around swampy areas around the Black River & around Long Bay in Hanover and Westmoreland parishes for local consumption.

As tastes have changed in Jamaica in favor of more meat and packaged food the national food import bill has grown to the point that it threatens the health of the economy. The government has responded by encouraging gardening and farming, a response which has had limited success. For example, the percentage of potatoes grown locally has increased, but imports of french fries have continued at a high level.[32]

Animal husbandry

Cows Grazing, Saint Ann Parish 2023

Pastures form a good percentage of the land in Jamaica. Many properties specialize in cattle rearing. Livestock holdings were 400,000 head of cattle, 440,000 goats, 180,000 hogs & 30, rs of livestock are increasing, this isn't enough for local requirements for a growing population. Dairying has increased since the erection of a condensed milk factory at Bog Walk in 1940. Even so, the supply of dairy products is not enough for local requirements and there are large imports of powdered milk, butter and cheese.

Fishing

White River Fishing Village is in Ocho Rios, St. Ann

The fishing industry grew during the 1900s, primarily from the focus on inland fishing. Several thousand fishermen make a living from fishing. The shallow waters and cays off the south coast are richer than the northern waters. Other fishermen live on the Pedro Cays, 80 miles (130 km) to the south of Jamaica. Jamaica supplies about half of its fish requirements; major imports of frozen and salted fish are imported from the United States and Canada.

The total catch in 2000 was 5,676 tons, a decrease from 11,458 tons in 1997; the catch was mainly marine, with freshwater carp, barbel, etc., crustaceans & molluscs.

Forestry

By the late 1890, only 185,000 hectares (460,000 acres) of Jamaica's original 1,000,000 hectares (2,500,000 acres) of forest remained. Roundwood production was 881,000 cu m (31.1 million cu ft) in 2000. About 68% of the timber cut in 2000 was used as fuel wood while 32% was used for industrial use. The forests that once covered Jamaica now exist only in mountainous areas. They only supply 20% of the island timber requirements. The remaining forest is protected from further exploitation. Other accessible mountain areas are being reforested, mainly with pines, mahoe and mahogany.

Mining

Windalco, Alumina plant in the background (Kirkvine, Manchester)

Jamaica was the third-leading producer of bauxite and alumina in 1998, producing 12.6 million tons of bauxite, accounting for 10.4% of world production, and 3.46 million tons of alumina, accounting for 7.4% of world production. 8,540 million tons of bauxite was mined in 2012 and 10,200 million tons of bauxite in 2011.[33]

Mining and quarrying made up 4.1% of the nation's gross domestic product in 1999. Bauxite and alumina formed 55.2% of exports in 1999 and are the second-leading money earner after tourism. Jamaica has reserves of over 2 billion tonnes, which are expected to last 100 years. Bauxite is found in the central parishes of St. Elizabeth, Manchester, Clarendon, St. Catherine, St. Ann, and Trelawny. There are four alumina plants and six mines.

Jamaica has deposits of several million tons of gypsum on the southern slopes of the Blue Mountains. Jamaica produced 330,441 tons of gypsum in the year 2000,[34] some of which was used in the local cement industry and in the manufacturing of building materials.

Other minerals present in Jamaica include marble, limestone, and silica, as well as ores of copper, lead, zinc, manganese and iron. Some of these are worked in small quantities. Petroleum has been sought, but so far none has been found.

Secondary Industries

Manufacturing

The manufacturing sector is an essential contributor to the Jamaican economy. Though manufacturing accounted for 13.9% of GDP in 1999. Jamaican companies contribute many manufactures such as food processing; oil refining; produced chemicals, construction materials, plastic goods, paints, pharmaceuticals, cartons, leather goods and cigars & assembled electronics, textiles and apparel. The garment industry is a major job employer for thousands of hundreds of locals and they formed 12.9% of exports in 1999 earning US$159 million. Chemicals formed 3.3% of the exports in 1999 earning US$40 million.

A portion of the bauxite mined on the island is processed into alumina before export.

An oil refinery is located near Kingston converts crude petroleum obtained from Venezuela into gasoline and other products. These are mainly for local use. The construction industry is growing due to new hotels and attractions being built for tourism. Construction and installation formed 10.4% of the GDP in 1999.

Manufactured goods were imported and formed 30.3% of the imports and cost US$877 million in 1999.

Since the launch of the Jamaican Logistics Hub initiative,[35][36] various economic zones have been proposed throughout the country to assemble goods from other parts of the world for distribution to the Americas.[37]

Tertiary industries

Tourism

Tourism is tied with remittances as Jamaica's top source of revenue.[38] The tourism industry earns over 50 percent of the country's total foreign exchange earnings and provides about one-fourth of all jobs in Jamaica.[39] Most tourist activity is centered on the island's northern coast, including the communities of Montego Bay, Ocho Rios, and Port Antonio, as well as in Negril on the island's western tip.

KFC Draxhall

Some destinations include Ocho Rios, Green Grotto Caves, Y.S. Falls and Appleton Estate. Most of the tourist sites are landmarks as well as homes for many Jamaicans. Many of the most frequented tourist sites are located mainly by water such as rivers and beaches where fishermen make a living from seafood. One of the most famous beach towns in Jamaica is Ocho Rios, a located in the parish of Saint Ann on the north coast of Jamaica. It was once a fishing village but now attracts millions of tourists yearly. The site is popular today because of the food and culture that can be found there.

Another famous location in Jamaica that attracts millions yearly is Dunn's River Falls, located in Ocho Rios; this waterfall is approximately 600 feet long and runs off into the sea. Around the location many hotels and restaurants are available and many street vendors sell food around the clock. Another well-known beach town is Negril, the party capital of the country. This beach town has many different factors to add to the night life.

Logistics

In April 2014, the Governments of Jamaica and China signed the preliminary agreements for the first phase of the Jamaican Logistics Hub (JLH) - the initiative that aims to position Kingston as the fourth node in the global logistics chain, joining Rotterdam, Dubai and Singapore, and serving the Americas.[35] The Project, when completed, is expected to provide many jobs for Jamaicans, Economic Zones for multinational companies[37] and much needed economic growth to alleviate the country's heavy debt-to-GDP ratio. Strict adherence to the IMF's refinancing programme and preparations for the JLH has favourably affected Jamaica's credit rating and outlook from the three biggest rating agencies.

ICT/BPO

Jamaica has made strides in developing its Information and Communications Technology (ICT) infrastructure.

As the largest English speaking territory in the Caribbean, Jamaica is the region's leading contact centre location with over 87 information communications technology/business process outsourcing (ICT/BPO) companies operating in the country employing 44,000 full-time agents.[40][41]

Taxation/Tax Rates

Jamaican tax rates are extremely favourable in world standards, the brackets are as follows:[42]

BandPersonal Allowance (J$)Tax Rate
1 (Lower) -Up toJ$1,500,0000%
2 (Middle) - J$1,500,001-J$6,000,000J$1,500,00025%
3 (Upper) - J$6,000,000+J$030%

Separate Tax Rates apply for foreign nationals.[42]

Economic Data

The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2018. Inflation below 5% is in green.[43]

Year GDP
(in bil. US$ PPP)		 GDP per capita
(in US$ PPP)		 GDP
(in bil. US$ nominal)		 GDP growth
(real)		 Inflation rate
(in Percent)		 Unemployment
(in Percent)		 Government debt
(in % of GDP)
1980 6.1 2,897 2.6 Decrease−4.0 % Negative increase18.0 % 27.3 % n/a
1981 Increase7.0 Increase3,253 Increase2.8 Increase4.4 % Negative increase9.2 % Positive decrease25.9 % n/a
1982 Increase7.7 Increase3,501 Increase3.2 Increase3.1 % Negative increase6.8 % Negative increase27.6 % n/a
1983 Increase8.3 Increase3,715 Decrease2.9 Increase4.2 % Negative increase16.7 % Positive decrease26.4 % n/a
1984 Increase8.7 Increase3,877 Decrease2.1 Increase1.0 % Negative increase31.3 % Positive decrease25.5 % n/a
1985 Increase8.9 Increase3,904 Decrease2.0 Decrease−0.9 % Negative increase29.7 % Positive decrease25.0 % n/a
1986 Increase9.7 Increase4,224 Increase2.4 Increase7.0 % Negative increase24.4 % Positive decrease23.7 % n/a
1987 Increase10.7 Increase4,628 Increase2.7 Increase7.7 % Negative increase11.2 % Positive decrease21.0 % n/a
1988 Decrease10.6 Decrease4,573 Increase3.2 Decrease−4.0 % Negative increase8.2 % Positive decrease19.1 % n/a
1989 Increase11.5 Increase4,966 Increase3.7 Increase4.7 % Negative increase16.1 % Positive decrease15.2 % n/a
1990 Increase12.6 Increase5,309 Increase4.7 Increase4.9 % Negative increase24.8 % Negative increase15.7 % n/a
1991 Increase13.1 Increase5,498 Decrease4.3 Increase0.8 % Negative increase51.1 % Positive decrease15.4 % n/a
1992 Increase13.8 Increase5,737 Increase4.3 Increase2.8 % Negative increase77.3 % Negative increase15.7 % n/a
1993 Increase14.4 Increase5,953 Increase5.4 Increase2.2 % Negative increase22.1 % Negative increase16.3 % n/a
1994 Increase15.0 Increase6,140 Increase5.5 Increase1.9 % Negative increase35.1 % Positive decrease15.4 % n/a
1995 Increase15.7 Increase6,369 Increase6.5 Increase2.5 % Negative increase19.9 % Negative increase16.2 % n/a
1996 Increase16.0 Increase6,440 Increase7.4 Increase0.2 % Negative increase26.4 % Positive decrease16.0 % n/a
1997 Steady16.0 Decrease6,381 Increase8.4 Decrease−1.6 % Negative increase9.7 % Negative increase16.5 % n/a
1998 Steady16.0 Decrease6,313 Increase8.8 Decrease−1.2 % Negative increase8.6 % Positive decrease15.5 % n/a
1999 Increase16.4 Increase6,406 Increase8.9 Increase1.0 % Negative increase6.0 % Negative increase15.7 % 82.7 %
2000 Increase16.9 Increase6,539 Increase9.1 Increase0.8 % Increase4.6 % Positive decrease15.5 % Negative increase91.8 %
2001 Increase17.5 Increase6,709 Increase9.2 Increase1.3 % Negative increase9.5 % Positive decrease15.0 % Negative increase108.0 %
2002 Increase17.9 Increase6,804 Increase9.7 Increase0.7 % Negative increase8.2 % Positive decrease14.2 % Negative increase118.4 %
2003 Increase18.8 Increase7,130 Decrease9.4 Increase3.7 % Negative increase9.9 % Positive decrease11.8 % Negative increase123.2 %
2004 Increase19.6 Increase7,367 Increase10.2 Increase1.3 % Negative increase14.8 % Negative increase12.2 % Positive decrease119.8 %
2005 Increase20.4 Increase7,617 Increase11.2 Increase0.9 % Negative increase13.4 % Negative increase11.2 % Negative increase124.7 %
2006 Increase21.7 Increase8,033 Increase11.9 Increase2.9 % Negative increase8.9 % Positive decrease10.3 % Positive decrease117.1 %
2007 Increase22.6 Increase8,331 Increase12.9 Increase1.4 % Negative increase9.2 % Positive decrease9.9 % Positive decrease114.5 %
2008 Increase22.8 Increase8,390 Increase13.7 Decrease−0.8 % Negative increase22.0 % Negative increase10.6 % Negative increase127.0 %
2009 Decrease22.2 Decrease8,135 Decrease12.1 Decrease−3.4 % Negative increase9.6 % Negative increase11.4 % Negative increase141.9 %
2010 Decrease22.1 Decrease8,076 Increase13.2 Decrease−1.4 % Negative increase12.6 % Negative increase12.4 % Steady141.9 %
2011 Increase22.9 Increase8,322 Increase14.4 Increase1.4 % Negative increase7.5 % Negative increase13.0 % Positive decrease140.5 %
2012 Increase23.2 Increase8,395 Increase14.8 Decrease−0.5 % Negative increase6.9 % Negative increase13.9 % Negative increase145.1 %
2013 Increase23.7 Increase8,515 Decrease14.2 Increase0.2 % Negative increase9.4 % Negative increase15.3 % Positive decrease138.7 %
2014 Increase24.3 Increase8,679 Decrease13.9 Increase0.6 % Negative increase8.3 % Positive decrease14.2 % Positive decrease137.9 %
2015 Increase24.8 Increase8,798 Increase14.2 Increase0.9 % Increase3.7 % Positive decrease13.5 % Positive decrease121.3 %
2016 Increase25.4 Increase8,980 Decrease14.1 Increase1.5 % Increase2.3 % Positive decrease12.8 % Positive decrease113.6 %
2017 Increase26.1 Increase9,161 Increase14.8 Increase0.7 % Increase4.4 % Positive decrease12.2 % Positive decrease101.1 %
2018 Increase27.0 Increase9,447 Increase15.6 Increase1.4 % Increase3.7 % Positive decrease11.6 % Positive decrease99.4 %

References

  1. ↑ "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2019". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 29 September 2019.
  2. ↑ "World Bank Country and Lending Groups". datahelpdesk.worldbank.org. World Bank. Retrieved 29 September 2019.
  3. ↑ "Population Statistics". statinja.gov.jm. Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Archived from the original on 28 March 2017. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  5. ↑ "Global Economic Prospects, June 2020". openknowledge.worldbank.org. World Bank. p. 86. Retrieved 16 June 2020.
  6. ↑ "Jamaica GDP - composition by sector". IndexMundi. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 "The World Factbook". CIA.gov. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  8. ↑ "Poverty headcount ratio at $5.50 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) - Jamaica". data.worldbank.org. World Bank. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  9. ↑ "Human Development Index (HDI)". hdr.undp.org. HDRO (Human Development Report Office) United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
  10. ↑ "Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)". hdr.undp.org. HDRO (Human Development Report Office) United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 12 December 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
  11. ↑ "Labor force, total - Jamaica". data.worldbank.org. World Bank. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  12. ↑ "Employment to population ratio, 15+, total (%) (National estimate) - Jamaica | Data". data.worldbank.org. World Bank. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  13. ↑ "Labour Force Survey July 2019". statinja.gov.jm. Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Archived from the original on 20 August 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  14. ↑ "Salary Survey in Jamaica". Archived from the original on 14 June 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
  15. ↑ "Ease of Doing Business in Jamaica". Doingbusiness.org. Retrieved 24 November 2017.
  16. ↑ "Sovereigns rating list". Standard & Poor's. Retrieved 26 May 2011.
  17. 1 2 3 Rogers, Simon; Sedghi, Ami (15 April 2011). "How Fitch, Moody's and S&P rate each country's credit rating". The Guardian. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
  18. 1 2 "CENTRAL AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN :: JAMAICA". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 30 November 2017.
  19. 1 2 "Jamaica (04/01)". Archived from the original on 4 October 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
  20. 1 2 3 Central Bureau of Statistics Jamaica B.W.I. (1947). Quarterly Digest of Statistics No. 2. Duke Street, Kingston: The Government Printer.
  21. ↑ Burnard, Trevor; Panza, Laura; Williamson, Jeffrey G. (October 2017). "The Social Implications of Sugar: Living Costs, Real Incomes and Inequality in Jamaica c1774". NBER Working Paper No. 23897. doi:10.3386/w23897.
  22. ↑ Burnard, Trevor; Panza, Laura; Williamson, Jeffrey (6 December 2017). "Sugar and slaves: Wealth, poverty, and inequality in colonial Jamaica". VoxEU.org. Retrieved 6 December 2017.
  23. ↑ "Historical Currency Converter - OANDA". www.oanda.com.
  24. ↑ Jamaica's economic and financial market outlook for 2008 - JAMAICAOBSERVER.COM Archived 30 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ↑ "Overview".
  26. ↑ "Praedial larceny in the Caribbean" (PDF). FAO: Subregional office for the Caribbean. Retrieved 4 June 2019.
  27. 1 2 "Jamaica Agriculture, Information about Agriculture in Jamaica". Retrieved 11 June 2015.
  28. ↑ "Agriculture - Jamaica - import, export, crops". Retrieved 11 June 2015.
  29. ↑ "Jamaica GDP from Agriculture". Trading Economics. TRADING ECONOMICS. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
  30. ↑ "Caribbean Basin Struggles in NAFTA's Shadow". International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development. International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development Organization. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2017.
  31. ↑ "The EU Banana Regime: Evolution And Implications of its Recent Changes" (PDF). European Parliament. Retrieved 30 November 2017.
  32. ↑ Damien Cave (3 August 2013). "As Cost of Importing Food Soars, Jamaica Turns to the Earth". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2013.
  33. ↑ "BAUXITE AND ALUMINA" (PDF). minerals.usgs.gov. January 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2018.
  34. ↑ "Mining - Jamaica - export, sector". Retrieved 11 June 2015.
  35. 1 2 "Jamaica signs deal for China-built cargo shipping hub". Reuters. April 2014. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
  36. ↑ "jamaicalogisticshub.com". jamaicalogisticshub.com. Archived from the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
  37. 1 2 "Proposed Caymanas Economic Zone To Be One Of 16 - Jamaica Information Service". Jamaica Information Service. 13 January 2014. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
  38. ↑ "The World Factbook". Retrieved 11 June 2015.
  39. ↑ "GTTP: The Global Travel and Tourism Partnership". Archived from the original on 24 July 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
  40. ↑ "WHY JAMAICA?". Archived from the original on 19 April 2014. Retrieved 18 April 2014.
  41. ↑ Smith, Alecia (18 July 2021). "Jobs Increase by 15% in BPO Sector – Jamaica Information Service". jis.gov.jm. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 29 September 2021.
  42. 1 2 "Tax Administration". Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
  43. ↑ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". www.imf.org. Retrieved 21 June 2019.

Further reading

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