Biblical names

In the Bible, Shavuot is called the "Festival of Weeks" (Hebrew: חג השבועות, romanized: Ḥāġ hašŠāvuʻoṯ, Exodus 34:22, Deuteronomy 16:10); "Festival of Reaping" (Hebrew: חג הקציר, romanized: Ḥāġ HaqQāṣir Exodus 23:16),^[9] and "Day of the First Fruits" (Hebrew: יום הבכורים, romanized: Yom habBikkurim, Numbers 28:26).^[10]

Shavuot, the plural of a word meaning "week" or "seven", alludes to the fact that this festival happens exactly seven weeks (i.e. "a week of weeks") after Passover.^[11]

Later names

The Talmud refers to Shavuot as ʻAṣeret (Hebrew: עצרת, "refraining" or "holding back"),^[12] referring to the prohibition against work on this holiday^[13] and also to the conclusion of the Passover holiday-season.^[14] The other reason given for the reference ʻAṣeret is that just as Shemini ʻAṣeret brings the Festival of Succoth to a "close", in the same respect, Shavuot (ʻAṣeret) brings The Festival of Passover to its actual "close".

Since Shavuot occurs fifty days after Passover, Hellenistic Jews gave it the name "Pentecost" (Koinē Greek: Πεντηκοστή, "fiftieth day").^[15]

Giving of the Torah

Shavuot is not explicitly named in the Bible as the day on which the Torah was revealed by God to the Israelite nation at Mount Sinai, although this is commonly considered to be its main significance.^[16][17]

Unlike other major holidays, the Torah does not specify the date of Shavuot, but only that it falls 50 days after Passover, placing it at the 6th of Sivan according to the current fixed calendar (in earlier times when months were fixed by lunar observation, the date could vary by a day or two). The Torah states that the Israelites reached Sinai on the first^[18] day of the third month following the Exodus, i.e. Sivan.^[19] Then several events occurred, taking a total of at least three days, before the Torah was given.^[20] Thus, it is plausible that the giving of the Torah occurred on or about Shavuot, but no exact date is mentioned.

Besides the timing, scholars have pointed to thematic connections between Shavuot and the giving of the Torah, which are indicated by the Bible itself:

• Several aspects of the Shavuot Temple sacrifice (shtei halechem) suggest a connection to the Exodus and the giving of the Torah. The shtei halechem is the only holiday sacrifice which includes a communal shelamim ("peace") offering, recalling the communal shelamim offering which was offered after the acceptance of the Torah (Exodus 24:5–11). Also, the shtei halechem is one of the few sacrifices to include chametz, suggesting that Shavuot is a counterpoint to Passover and its historical events.^[21]

• From an early period, Shavuot was regarded as an appropriate time to make covenants between God and humanity. Asa chose to make his covenant (2 Chronicles 15:8–15) on or about Shavuot.^[22] (Similarly, according to Book of Jubilees, Noah made his covenant with God on Shavuot.^[23]) The association between Shavuot and covenants suggests a connection to the giving of the Torah, which itself was a covenant between God and Israel.^[24][25] In addition, the description of Asa's covenant repeatedly alludes both to the giving of the Torah^[26] and to the Shavuot holiday,^[27] suggesting a link between the two.^[25]

Most of the Talmudic sages agreed that the Torah was given on the 6 Sivan (the date of Shavuot), but Rabbi Jose holds that it was given on 7 Sivan.^[28] According to the classical timeline, the Israelites arrived at the wilderness of Sinai on the new moon (Exodus 19:1) and the Ten Commandments were given on the following Shabbat (i.e., Saturday). The question of whether the new moon fell on Sunday or Monday is undecided.^[28] In practice, Shavuot is observed on 6 Sivan in Israel^[29] and a second day is added in the Jewish diaspora (in keeping with a separate rabbinical ruling that applies to all biblical holidays, called Yom tov sheni shel galuyot, Second-Day Yom Tov in the diaspora).^[30] Thus, according to Rabbi Jose, only outside Israel does Shavuot fall out on the day the Torah was given.

Agricultural

What is textually connected in the Bible to the Feast of Shavuot is the season of the grain harvest, specifically of the wheat, in the Land of Israel. In ancient times, the grain harvest lasted seven weeks and was a season of gladness (Jer. 5:24, Deut. 16:9–11, Isa. 9:2). It began with the harvesting of the barley during Passover and ended with the harvesting of the wheat at Shavuot. Shavuot was thus the concluding festival of the grain harvest, just as the eighth day of Sukkot (Tabernacles) was the concluding festival of the fruit harvest. During the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem, an offering of two loaves of bread from the wheat harvest was made on Shavuot according to the commandment in Lev. 23:17.^[5]

The last but one Qumran Scroll to be published has been discovered to contain two festival dates observed by the Qumran sect as part of their formally perfect 364-day calendar, and dedicated to "New Wine" and "New Oil", neither of which is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, but were known from another Qumran manuscript, the Temple Scroll. These festivals "constituted an extension of the festival of Shavuot ... which celebrates the New Wheat." All three festivals are calculated starting from the first Sabbath following Passover, by repeatedly adding exactly fifty days each time: first came New Wheat (Shavuot), then New Wine, and then New Oil.^[31][32] (See also below, at "The Book of Jubilees and the Essenes".)

Pilgrimage

Shavuot was one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals on which Jews would visit the Temple in Jerusalem.

Bikkurim

Shavuot was also the first day on which individuals could bring the Bikkurim (First-fruits) to the Temple in Jerusalem.^[33] Bikkurim were so important to Shavuot that the Torah twice describes the holiday as a day of bikkurim,^[34] testifying to the link between bikkurim and this holiday, at which time wheat was ready for harvest and summer fruit was beginning to ripen and bikkurim were brought.

Shtei Halechem

The Torah prescribes a special sacrifice for Shavuot: the shtei halechem (two loaves of bread), which (atypically for sacrifices) must be chametz, and which are described as bikkurim of the wheat harvest.^[35] These loaves are accompanied by a set of other sacrifices.^[36]

According to Maharal, there is a symbolic contrast between the omer offering (offered on Passover) and the shtei halechem. The former consists of barley, which is typically an animal food, and represents the low spiritual level of the Israelites immediately upon leaving Egypt; while the latter consists of wheat and represents the high spiritual level of the Israelites upon receiving the Torah.^[37]

Liturgical poems

Dairy foods

Cheese blintzes, typically eaten by Ashkenazi Jews on Shavuot

Dairy foods such as cheesecake, cheese blintzes,^[43] and cheese kreplach among Ashkenazi Jews;^[44] cheese sambusak,^[45] kelsonnes (cheese ravioli),^[46] and atayef (a cheese-filled pancake)^[47] among Syrian Jews; kahee (a dough that is buttered and sugared) among Iraqi Jews;^[47] and a seven-layer cake called siete cielos (seven heavens) among Tunisian and Moroccan Jews^[47][48] are traditionally consumed on the Shavuot holiday. Yemenite Jews do not eat dairy foods on Shavuot.^[47]

In keeping with the observance of other Jewish holidays, there is both a night meal and a day meal on Shavuot. Meat is usually served at night and dairy is served either for the day meal^[44] or for a morning kiddush.^[49]

Among the explanations given in rabbinic literature for the consumption of dairy foods on this holiday are:^[50][51]

• Before they received the Torah, the Israelites were not obligated to follow its laws, which include shechita (ritual slaughter of animals) and kashrut. Since all their meat pots and dishes now had to be made kosher before use, they opted to eat dairy foods.
• The Torah is compared to milk by King Solomon, who wrote: "Like honey and milk, it lies under your tongue" (Song of Songs 4:11).
• The gematria of the Hebrew word ḥalav (חלב‎) is 40, corresponding to the forty days and forty nights that Moses spent on Mount Sinai before bringing down the Torah.
• According to the Zohar, each day of the year correlates to one of the Torah's 365 negative commandments. Shavuot corresponds to the commandment "Bring the first fruits of your land to the house of God your Lord; do not cook a kid in its mother's milk" (Exodus 34:26). Since the first day to bring Bikkurim (the first fruits) is Shavuot, the second half of the verse refers to the custom to eat two separate meals – one milk, one meat – on Shavuot.
• Psalms 68:16–17 calls Mount Sinai^{[lower-alpha 1]} Har Gavnunim (הר גבננים‎, mountain of majestic peaks), which is possibly related to gevinah (גבינה‎, cheese).^{[lower-alpha 2]}

Book of Ruth

Ruth in Boaz's Field by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, oil on canvas, 1828; National Gallery, London

The Five Megillot – five books from the Hebrew Bible – are traditionally read in synagogue on various Jewish holidays. Of these, the Book of Ruth is read on Shavuot. Reasons given for this custom include:

1. Shavuot is harvest time (Exodus 23:16), and the events of Book of Ruth occur at harvest time.^[52]
2. Because Shavuot is traditionally cited as the day of the giving of the Torah, the entry of the entire Jewish people into the covenant of the Torah is a major theme of the day. Ruth's conversion to Judaism, and consequent entry into that covenant, is described in the book. This theme accordingly resonates with other themes of the day.^[52]
3. King David (Ruth's descendant, whose genealogy appears at the end of the Book of Ruth) was traditionally born and died on Shavuot.^[53]
4. The gematria (numerical value) of Ruth is 606. Added to the Seven Laws of Noah, the total equals the 613 commandments in the Torah.^[54]
5. Another central theme of the book is ḥesed (loving-kindness), a major theme of the Torah.^[55]

Greenery

In many Jewish communities, there is a tradition to decorate homes and synagogues with plants, flowers and leafy branches on Shavuot.^[56] In fact, Persian Jews referred to the holiday as "The Mo'ed of Flowers" (موعد گل) in Persian, and never as "Shavuot".

A common reason given for this custom is the story that Mount Sinai suddenly blossomed with flowers in anticipation of the giving of the Torah on its summit. This idea is first mentioned in medieval Ashkenazi sources such as Maharil.^[57][58] In another interpretation, flowers represent the Jewish people, which received a covenant with God on this date.^[57] Other reasons have been suggested as well.^[56]

Some synagogues decorate the bimah with a canopy of flowers and plants so that it resembles a chuppah, as Shavuot is mystically referred to as the day the matchmaker (Moses) brought the bride (the nation of Israel) to the chuppah (Mount Sinai) to marry the bridegroom (God); the ketubah (marriage contract) was the Torah. Some Eastern Sephardi communities read out a ketubah between God and Israel, composed by Rabbi Israel ben Moses Najara as part of the service. This custom was also adopted by some Hasidic communities, particularly from Hungary.^[59]

The Vilna Gaon cancelled the tradition of decorating with trees because it too closely resembles the Christian decorations for their holidays.^[56]

All-night Torah study

Some have the custom to learn Torah all night on the first night of Shavuot, a practice known as known as Tiqqun Leyl Shavuot (Hebrew: תקון ליל שבועות) ("Rectification for Shavuot Night").

The custom is first recorded c. 1300 in the Or Zarua II . According to that work, "Our righteous forebears, servants of the Most High, would never sleep on Shavuot eve—and now we do this on both nights—for all night they would read the Torah and the Nevi'im and the Ketuvim, and they would skip around the Talmud and the Aggadot, and they would read the secret wisdoms until dawn broke, and they would hold the legacy of their fathers in their very hands".^[60] The custom was later linked to a Midrash which relates that the night before the Torah was given, the Israelites retired early to be well-rested for the momentous day ahead. They overslept and Moses had to wake them up because God was already waiting on the mountaintop.^[61] To rectify this perceived flaw in the national character, many religious Jews stay up all night to learn Torah.^[62]

In 1533 Rabbi Joseph Caro, author of the Shulchan Aruch, then living in Ottoman Salonika, invited Rabbi Shlomo Halevi Alkabetz and other Kabbalistic colleagues to hold Shavuot-night study vigils for which they prepared for three days in advance, just as the Israelites had prepared for three days before the giving of the Torah. During one of those study sessions, an angel reportedly appeared and taught them Jewish law.^[63][64][65]

It has been suggested that the introduction of coffee throughout the Ottoman empire may have attributed to the "feasibility and popularity" of the practice of all-night Torah study.^[66][67] In contrast, the custom of Yemenite Jews is to ingest the fresh leaves of a stimulant herb called Khat (containing cathinone) for the all-night ritual, an herb commonly used in that region of the world.

Any subject may be studied on Shavuot night, although Talmud, Mishnah, and Torah typically top the list. People may learn alone or with a chavruta (study partner), or attend late-night shiurim (lectures) and study groups.^[68] In keeping with the custom of engaging in all-night Torah study, leading 16th-century kabbalist Isaac Luria arranged a recital consisting of excerpts from the beginning and end of each of the 24 books of Tanakh (including the reading in full of several key sections such as the account of the days of creation, the Exodus, the giving of the Ten Commandments and the Shema) and the 63 tractates of Mishnah,^[69][70] followed by the reading of Sefer Yetzirah, the 613 commandments as enumerated by Maimonides, and excerpts from the Zohar, with opening and concluding prayers. The whole reading is divided into thirteen parts, after each of which a Kaddish d-Rabbanan is recited when the Tiqun is studied with a minyan. Today, this service is held in many communities, with the notable exception of Spanish and Portuguese Jews. The service is printed in a book called Tiqun Leyl Shavuot.^[71] There exist similar books for the vigils before the seventh day of Pesach and Hosha'ana Rabbah.

In Jerusalem, at the conclusion of the night time study session, tens of thousands of people walk to the Western Wall to pray with sunrise. A week after Israel captured the Old City during the Six-Day War, more than 200,000 Jews streamed to the site on Shavuot, it having been made accessible to Jews for the first time since 1948.^{[68][72][73][74]}

The Book of Jubilees and the Essenes

This literal interpretation of "Shabbat" as the weekly Shabbat was shared by the author of the Book of Jubilees, who was motivated by the priestly sabbatical solar calendar to have festivals and Sabbaths fall on the same day of the week every year. On this calendar (best known from the Book of Luminaries in the Book of Enoch), Shavuot fell on the 15th of Sivan, a Sunday. The date was reckoned fifty days from the first Shabbat after Passover (i.e. from the 25th of Nisan). Thus, Jub. 1:1 claims that Moses ascended Mount Sinai to receive the Torah "on the sixteenth day of the third month in the first year of the Exodus of the children of Israel from Egypt".

In Jub. 6:15–22 and 44:1–5, the holiday is traced to the appearance of the first rainbow on the 15th of Sivan, the day on which God made his covenant with Noah.

The Qumran community, commonly associated with the Essenes, held in its library several texts mentioning Shavuot, most notably a Hebrew original of the Book of Jubilees, which sought to fix the celebration of Shavuot on 15 Sivan, following their interpretation of Exodus 19:1.^[80] (See also above, at "Agricultural".)