A brown volcano in the centre with white smoke emanating from its peak, a cloudy sky fading from blue at the top through yellow in the middle to red at the horizon, and brown mountains in the foreground.
Mahameru (Semeru) above Mount Bromo, East Java.
East Indonesia Islands from ISS. Seven active volcanoes are visible: 5 in East Java, Agung in Bali and Rinjani in Lombok.

The geography of Indonesia is dominated by volcanoes that are formed due to subduction zones between the Eurasian plate and the Indo-Australian plate. Some of the volcanoes are notable for their eruptions, for instance, Krakatoa for its global effects in 1883,[1] the Lake Toba Caldera for its supervolcanic eruption estimated to have occurred 74,000 years before present which was responsible for six years of volcanic winter,[2] and Mount Tambora for the most violent eruption in recorded history in 1815.[3]

Volcanoes in Indonesia are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The 150 entries in the list below are grouped into six geographical regions, four of which belong to the volcanoes of the Sunda Arc trench system. The remaining two groups are volcanoes of Halmahera, including its surrounding volcanic islands, and volcanoes of Sulawesi and the Sangihe Islands. The latter group is in one volcanic arc together with the Philippine volcanoes.

The most active volcano is Mount Merapi on Java. Since AD 1000, Kelut has erupted more than 30 times, of which the largest eruption was at scale 5 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI),[4] while Mount Merapi has erupted more than 80 times.[5] The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior has named Mount Merapi as a Decade Volcano since 1995 because of its high volcanic activity.

As of 2012, Indonesia has 127 active volcanoes and about 5 million people active within the danger zones. It has been conjectured that the earthquake and tsunami event of 26 December 2004 could trigger eruptions, with Mount Sinabung (dormant since the 1600s) erupting in 2010 as a possible example.[6]

The word for Mount in Indonesian and many regional languages of the country is Gunung. Thus, Mount Merapi may be referred to as Gunung Merapi.

Scope

A chart with the heading "Major Volcanoes of Indonesia (with eruptions since 1900 A.D.)". Depicted below the heading is an overhead view of a cluster of islands.
Major volcanoes in Indonesia

There is no single standard definition for a volcano. It can be defined from individual vents, volcanic edifices or volcanic fields. Interior of ancient volcanoes may have been eroded, creating a new subsurface magma chamber as a separate volcano. Many contemporary active volcanoes rise as young parasitic cones from flank vents or at a central crater. Some volcanic cones are grouped into one volcano name, for instance, the Tengger caldera complex, although individual vents are named by local people. The status of a volcano, either active or dormant, cannot be defined precisely. An indication of a volcano is determined by either its historical records, radiocarbon dating, or geothermal activities.

The primary source of the list below is taken from the Volcanoes of the World book, compiled by two volcanologists Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert,[lower-alpha 1] in which active volcanoes in the past 10,000 years (Holocene) are listed.[7] Particularly for Indonesia, Simkin and Siebert used a catalogue of active volcanoes from the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior publication series.[lower-alpha 2] The Simkin and Siebert list is the most complete list of volcanoes in Indonesia, but the accuracy of the record varies from one region to another in terms of contemporary activities and fatalities in recent eruptions. Complementary sources for the latest volcanic data are taken from the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, a governmental institution which is responsible for volcanic activities and geological hazard mitigation in Indonesia,[8] and some academic resources.

Geographical groups

Sumatra

Drawing of an overhead view of an elongated island stretching from the top left corner to the bottom right corner and labelled with names of locations.
Map showing the location of volcanoes and geological fault lines of Sumatra

The geography of Sumatra is dominated by a mountain range called Bukit Barisan (lit: "a row of hills"). The mountain range spans nearly 1,700 km (1,100 mi) from the north to the south of the island, and it was formed by movement of the Australian tectonic plate.[9] The plate moves with a convergence rate of 5.5 cm/year which has created major earthquakes on the western side of Sumatra including the 2004 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake.[10][11] The tectonic movement has been responsible not only for earthquakes, but also for the formation of magma chambers beneath the island.[9]

Only one of the 35 active volcanoes, Weh, is separated from the Sumatran mainland. The separation was caused by a large eruption that filled the lowland between Weh and the rest of the mainland with sea water in the Pleistocene epoch. The largest volcano of Sumatra is the supervolcano Toba within the 100 km (62 mi) × 30 km (19 mi) Lake Toba, which was created after a caldera collapse (est. in 74,000 Before Present).[2] The eruption is estimated to have been at level eight on the VEI scale, the highest level for a volcanic eruption. The highest peak of the mountain range is Mount Kerinci with an elevation of 3,800 m (12,467 ft).

NameShapeElevationLast eruption (VEI)Coordinates
Wehstratovolcano617 metres (2,024 ft)Pleistocene5°49′N 95°17′E / 5.82°N 95.28°E / 5.82; 95.28
Seulawah Agamstratovolcano1,810 metres (5,940 ft)1839 (2)5°26′53″N 95°39′29″E / 5.448°N 95.658°E / 5.448; 95.658
Peuet Saguecomplex volcano2,801 metres (9,190 ft)25 December 2000 (2)4°54′50″N 96°19′44″E / 4.914°N 96.329°E / 4.914; 96.329
Geureudongstratovolcano2,885 metres (9,465 ft)19374°48′47″N 96°49′12″E / 4.813°N 96.82°E / 4.813; 96.82
Kembarshield volcano2,245 metres (7,365 ft)Pleistocene3°51′00″N 97°39′50″E / 3.850°N 97.664°E / 3.850; 97.664
Sibayakstratovolcano2,212 metres (7,257 ft)18813°14′N 98°31′E / 3.23°N 98.52°E / 3.23; 98.52
Sinabungstratovolcano2,460 metres (8,070 ft)2 March 2021[12]3°10′12″N 98°23′31″E / 3.17°N 98.392°E / 3.17; 98.392
Tobasupervolcano2,157 metres (7,077 ft)75000 BC (8)2°35′N 98°50′E / 2.58°N 98.83°E / 2.58; 98.83
Helatoba-Tarutungfumarole field1,100 metres (3,600 ft)Pleistocene2°02′N 98°56′E / 2.03°N 98.93°E / 2.03; 98.93
Imununknown1,505 metres (4,938 ft)unknown2°09′29″N 98°55′48″E / 2.158°N 98.93°E / 2.158; 98.93
Sibualbualistratovolcano1,819 metres (5,968 ft)unknown1°33′22″N 99°15′18″E / 1.556°N 99.255°E / 1.556; 99.255
Lubukrayastratovolcano1,862 metres (6,109 ft)unknown1°28′41″N 99°12′32″E / 1.478°N 99.209°E / 1.478; 99.209
Sorikmarapistratovolcano2,145 metres (7,037 ft)1986 (1)0°41′10″N 99°32′20″E / 0.686°N 99.539°E / 0.686; 99.539
Talakmaucomplex volcano2,919 metres (9,577 ft)unknown0°04′44″N 99°58′48″E / 0.079°N 99.98°E / 0.079; 99.98
Sarik-Gajahvolcanic coneunknownunknown0°00′29″N 100°12′00″E / 0.008°N 100.20°E / 0.008; 100.20
Marapicomplex volcano2,885 metres (9,465 ft)2023 0°22′52″S 100°28′23″E / 0.381°S 100.473°E / -0.381; 100.473
Tandikatstratovolcano2,438 metres (7,999 ft)1924 (1)0°25′59″S 100°19′01″E / 0.433°S 100.317°E / -0.433; 100.317
Talangstratovolcano2,597 metres (8,520 ft)12 April 2005 (2)0°58′41″S 100°40′44″E / 0.978°S 100.679°E / -0.978; 100.679
Kerincistratovolcano3,800 metres (12,500 ft)2019 (on going) 1°41′49″S 101°15′50″E / 1.697°S 101.264°E / -1.697; 101.264
Hutapanjangstratovolcano2,021 metres (6,631 ft)unknown2°20′S 101°36′E / 2.33°S 101.60°E / -2.33; 101.60
Sumbingstratovolcano2,507 metres (8,225 ft)23 May 1921 (2)2°24′50″S 101°43′41″E / 2.414°S 101.728°E / -2.414; 101.728
Masuraistratovolcano2,916 metres (9,567 ft)Pleistocene[13]2°30′11″S 101°43′41″E / 2.503°S 101.728°E / -2.503; 101.728
Kunyitstratovolcano2,151 metres (7,057 ft)unknown2°35′31″S 101°51′00″E / 2.592°S 101.85°E / -2.592; 101.85
Pendanunknownunknownunknown2°49′S 102°01′E / 2.82°S 102.02°E / -2.82; 102.02
Belirang-Beriticomplex volcano1,958 metres (6,424 ft)unknown2°49′S 102°11′E / 2.82°S 102.18°E / -2.82; 102.18
Bukit Daunstratovolcano2,467 metres (8,094 ft)unknown3°23′S 102°22′E / 3.38°S 102.37°E / -3.38; 102.37
Kabastratovolcano1,952 metres (6,404 ft)22 August 2000 (1)3°31′S 102°37′E / 3.52°S 102.62°E / -3.52; 102.62
Dempostratovolcano3,173 metres (10,410 ft)2018 (1)4°02′S 103°08′E / 4.03°S 103.13°E / -4.03; 103.13
Patahunknown2,817 metres (9,242 ft)unknown4°16′S 103°18′E / 4.27°S 103.30°E / -4.27; 103.30
Bukit Lumut Balaistratovolcano2,055 metres (6,742 ft)unknown4°14′S 103°37′E / 4.23°S 103.62°E / -4.23; 103.62
Besarstratovolcano1,899 metres (6,230 ft)April 1940 (1)4°26′S 103°40′E / 4.43°S 103.67°E / -4.43; 103.67
Ranaucaldera1,881 metres (6,171 ft)unknown4°50′S 103°55′E / 4.83°S 103.92°E / -4.83; 103.92
Sekincau Belirangcaldera1,719 metres (5,640 ft)unknown5°07′S 104°19′E / 5.12°S 104.32°E / -5.12; 104.32
Suohcaldera1,000 metres (3,300 ft)10 July 1933 (4)5°15′S 104°16′E / 5.25°S 104.27°E / -5.25; 104.27
Hulubelucaldera1,040 metres (3,410 ft)18365°21′S 104°36′E / 5.35°S 104.60°E / -5.35; 104.60
Rajabasastratovolcano1,281 metres (4,203 ft)17985°46′48″S 105°37′30″E / 5.78°S 105.625°E / -5.78; 105.625

Sunda Strait and Java

The Sunda Strait separates the islands of Sumatra and Java with the volcanic island Krakatoa lying between them. Krakatau erupted violently in 1883, destroying two-thirds of the island and leaving a large caldera under the sea. This cataclysmic explosion was heard as far away as the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius (approx. 4,800 kilometres (3,000 mi) away).[1] A new parasitic cone, called Anak Krakatau (or the child of Krakatau), rose from the sea at the centre of the caldera in 1930.[14] The other Krakatau islets from the 1883 eruptions are known as Sertung, Panjang and Rakata.

Java is a relatively small island compared to Sumatra, but it has a higher concentration of active volcanoes. There are 45 active volcanoes on the island excluding 20 small craters and cones in the Dieng volcanic complex and the young cones in the Tengger caldera complex. Some volcanoes are grouped together in the list below because of their close location. Mount Merapi, Semeru and Kelud are the most active volcanoes in Java. Mount Semeru has been continuously erupting since 1967.[15] Mount Merapi has been named as one of the Decade Volcanoes since 1995.[16] Ijen has a unique colourful caldera lake which is an extremely acidic natural reservoir (pH<0.3).[17] There are sulfur mining activities at Ijen, where miners collect highly concentrated sulfur rocks by hand.

NameShapeElevationLast eruption (VEI)Coordinates
Krakataucaldera813 metres (2,667 ft)2022 (ongoing)6°06′07″S 105°25′23″E / 6.102°S 105.423°E / -6.102; 105.423
Pulosaristratovolcano1,346 metres (4,416 ft)unknown6°20′31″S 105°58′30″E / 6.342°S 105.975°E / -6.342; 105.975
Gunung Karangstratovolcano1,778 metres (5,833 ft)unknown6°16′12″S 106°02′31″E / 6.27°S 106.042°E / -6.27; 106.042
Kiaraberes-Gagakstratovolcano1,511 metres (4,957 ft)6 April 1939 (1)6°44′S 106°39′E / 6.73°S 106.65°E / -6.73; 106.65
Perbaktistratovolcano1,699 metres (5,574 ft)unknown6°45′S 106°41′E / 6.75°S 106.68°E / -6.75; 106.68
Salakstratovolcano2,211 metres (7,254 ft)31 January 1938 (2)6°43′S 106°44′E / 6.72°S 106.73°E / -6.72; 106.73
Gedestratovolcano2,958 metres (9,705 ft)13 March 1957 (2)6°47′S 106°59′E / 6.78°S 106.98°E / -6.78; 106.98
Patuhastratovolcano2,434 metres (7,986 ft)unknown7°09′36″S 107°24′00″E / 7.160°S 107.40°E / -7.160; 107.40
Wayang-Windulava dome2,182 metres (7,159 ft)unknown7°12′29″S 107°37′48″E / 7.208°S 107.63°E / -7.208; 107.63
Malabarstratovolcano2,343 metres (7,687 ft)unknown7°08′S 107°39′E / 7.13°S 107.65°E / -7.13; 107.65
Tangkuban Perahustratovolcano2,084 metres (6,837 ft)26 June 2019 (1)6°46′S 107°36′E / 6.77°S 107.60°E / -6.77; 107.60
Papandayanstratovolcano2,665 metres (8,743 ft)11 November 2002 (2)7°19′S 107°44′E / 7.32°S 107.73°E / -7.32; 107.73
Kendangstratovolcano2,608 metres (8,556 ft)unknown7°14′S 107°43′E / 7.23°S 107.72°E / -7.23; 107.72
Kamojangstratovolcano1,730 metres (5,680 ft)Pleistocene7°07′30″S 107°48′00″E / 7.125°S 107.80°E / -7.125; 107.80
Gunturcomplex volcano2,249 metres (7,379 ft)16 October 1847 (2)7°08′35″S 107°50′24″E / 7.143°S 107.840°E / -7.143; 107.840
Tampomasstratovolcano1,684 metres (5,525 ft)unknown6°46′S 107°57′E / 6.77°S 107.95°E / -6.77; 107.95
Galunggungstratovolcano2,168 metres (7,113 ft)9 January 1984 (1)7°15′00″S 108°03′29″E / 7.25°S 108.058°E / -7.25; 108.058
Talagabodasstratovolcano2,201 metres (7,221 ft)unknown7°12′29″S 108°04′12″E / 7.208°S 108.07°E / -7.208; 108.07
Karahafumarole1,155 metres (3,789 ft)unknown7°07′S 108°05′E / 7.12°S 108.08°E / -7.12; 108.08
Ceremestratovolcano3,078 metres (10,098 ft)19516°53′31″S 108°24′00″E / 6.892°S 108.40°E / -6.892; 108.40
Slametstratovolcano3,432 metres (11,260 ft)20147°14′31″S 109°12′29″E / 7.242°S 109.208°E / -7.242; 109.208
Diengcomplex volcano2,565 metres (8,415 ft)29 April 2021 (?)7°12′S 109°55′E / 7.20°S 109.92°E / -7.20; 109.92
Sundorostratovolcano3,136 metres (10,289 ft)29 October 1971 (2)7°18′00″S 109°59′31″E / 7.30°S 109.992°E / -7.30; 109.992
Sumbingstratovolcano3,371 metres (11,060 ft)1730 (?)7°23′02″S 110°04′12″E / 7.384°S 110.070°E / -7.384; 110.070
Ungaranstratovolcano2,050 metres (6,730 ft)unknown7°11′S 110°20′E / 7.18°S 110.33°E / -7.18; 110.33
Telomoyostratovolcano1,894 metres (6,214 ft)unknown7°22′S 110°24′E / 7.37°S 110.40°E / -7.37; 110.40
Merbabustratovolcano3,145 metres (10,318 ft)1797 (2)7°27′S 110°26′E / 7.45°S 110.43°E / -7.45; 110.43
Merapistratovolcano2,968 metres (9,738 ft) 2019 (ongoing) 7°32′31″S 110°26′31″E / 7.542°S 110.442°E / -7.542; 110.442
Muriastratovolcano1,625 metres (5,331 ft)160 BC ± 30 years6°37′S 110°53′E / 6.62°S 110.88°E / -6.62; 110.88
Lawustratovolcano3,265 metres (10,712 ft)28 November 1885 (1)7°37′30″S 111°11′31″E / 7.625°S 111.192°E / -7.625; 111.192
Wilisstratovolcano2,563 metres (8,409 ft)unknown7°48′29″S 111°45′29″E / 7.808°S 111.758°E / -7.808; 111.758
Keludstratovolcano1,731 metres (5,679 ft)13 February 2014 (4)7°55′48″S 112°18′29″E / 7.93°S 112.308°E / -7.93; 112.308
Kawi-Butakstratovolcano2,651 metres (8,698 ft)unknown7°55′S 112°27′E / 7.92°S 112.45°E / -7.92; 112.45
Arjuno-Welirangstratovolcano3,339 metres (10,955 ft)15 August 1952 (0)7°43′30″S 112°34′48″E / 7.725°S 112.58°E / -7.725; 112.58
Penanggunganstratovolcano1,653 metres (5,423 ft)unknown7°37′S 112°38′E / 7.62°S 112.63°E / -7.62; 112.63
Malang Plainmaar680 metres (2,230 ft)unknown8°01′S 112°41′E / 8.02°S 112.68°E / -8.02; 112.68
Semerustratovolcano3,676 metres (12,060 ft)2021 (ongoing)8°06′29″S 112°55′12″E / 8.108°S 112.92°E / -8.108; 112.92
Bromostratovolcano2,329 metres (7,641 ft)2021 7°56′31″S 112°57′00″E / 7.942°S 112.95°E / -7.942; 112.95
Lamonganstratovolcano1,651 metres (5,417 ft)5 February 1898 (2)7°58′44″S 113°20′31″E / 7.979°S 113.342°E / -7.979; 113.342
Luruscomplex volcano539 metres (1,768 ft)unknown7°44′S 113°35′E / 7.73°S 113.58°E / -7.73; 113.58
Iyang-Argapuracomplex volcano3,088 metres (10,131 ft)unknown7°58′S 113°34′E / 7.97°S 113.57°E / -7.97; 113.57
Raungstratovolcano3,332 metres (10,932 ft)2021 (?)8°07′30″S 114°02′31″E / 8.125°S 114.042°E / -8.125; 114.042
Ijenstratovolcano2,799 metres (9,183 ft)28 June 1999 (1)8°03′29″S 114°14′31″E / 8.058°S 114.242°E / -8.058; 114.242
Baluranstratovolcano1,247 metres (4,091 ft)unknown7°51′S 114°22′E / 7.85°S 114.37°E / -7.85; 114.37

Note: Height of Krakatau is of Rakata, not of the active Anak Krakatau

Lesser Sunda Islands

The Lesser Sunda Islands is a small archipelago which, from west to east, consists of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba and the Timor islands; all are located at the edge of the Australian continental shelf. Volcanoes in the area are formed because of oceanic crusts and the movement of the shelf itself.[18] Some volcanoes completely form an island, for instance, the Sangeang Api island. Mount Tambora, on Sumbawa island, erupted on 5 April 1815, with a scale 7 on the VEI and is considered the most violent eruption in recorded history.[3]

NameIslandShapeElevationLast eruption (VEI)Coordinates
MerbukBaliunknown1,386 metres (4,547 ft)unknown8°13′S 114°39′E / 8.22°S 114.65°E / -8.22; 114.65
BratanBalicaldera2,276 metres (7,467 ft)unknown8°17′S 115°08′E / 8.28°S 115.13°E / -8.28; 115.13
BaturBalicaldera1,717 metres (5,633 ft)2000 (1)8°14′31″S 115°22′30″E / 8.242°S 115.375°E / -8.242; 115.375
AgungBalistratovolcano3,031 metres (9,944 ft)20198°20′31″S 115°30′29″E / 8.342°S 115.508°E / -8.342; 115.508
SamalasLombokstratovolcano2,867 metres (9,406 ft)1257 (7)8°25′S 116°24′E / 8.41°S 116.40°E / -8.41; 116.40
RinjaniLombokstratovolcano3,726 metres (12,224 ft)2016 (2)8°25′S 116°28′E / 8.42°S 116.47°E / -8.42; 116.47
TamboraSumbawastratovolcano2,722 metres (8,930 ft)1967 ± 20 years (0)8°15′S 118°00′E / 8.25°S 118.00°E / -8.25; 118.00
Sangeang ApiSangeangcomplex volcano1,949 metres (6,394 ft)2019 (ongoing)8°12′S 119°04′E / 8.20°S 119.07°E / -8.20; 119.07
Wai SanoFlorescaldera903 metres (2,963 ft)unknown8°43′S 120°01′E / 8.72°S 120.02°E / -8.72; 120.02
Poco LeokFloresunknown1,675 metres (5,495 ft)unknown8°41′S 120°29′E / 8.68°S 120.48°E / -8.68; 120.48
RanakahFloreslava dome2,100 metres (6,900 ft)March 1991 (1)8°37′S 120°31′E / 8.62°S 120.52°E / -8.62; 120.52
InierieFloresstratovolcano2,245 metres (7,365 ft)8050 BC8°52′30″S 120°57′00″E / 8.875°S 120.95°E / -8.875; 120.95
InielikaFlorescomplex volcano1,559 metres (5,115 ft)11 January 2001 (2)8°44′S 120°59′E / 8.73°S 120.98°E / -8.73; 120.98
EbuloboFloresstratovolcano2,124 metres (6,969 ft)27 February 1969 (2)8°49′S 121°11′E / 8.82°S 121.18°E / -8.82; 121.18
IyaFloresstratovolcano637 metres (2,090 ft)27 January 1969 (3)8°53′49″S 121°38′42″E / 8.897°S 121.645°E / -8.897; 121.645
SukariaFlorescaldera1,500 metres (4,900 ft)unknown8°47′31″S 121°46′12″E / 8.792°S 121.77°E / -8.792; 121.77
Ndete NapuFloresfumarole750 metres (2,460 ft)unknown8°43′S 121°47′E / 8.72°S 121.78°E / -8.72; 121.78
KelimutuFlorescomplex volcano1,639 metres (5,377 ft)3 June 1968 (1)8°46′S 121°49′E / 8.77°S 121.82°E / -8.77; 121.82
PaluwehPalu'estratovolcano875 metres (2,871 ft)3 February 1985 (1)8°19′12″S 121°42′29″E / 8.32°S 121.708°E / -8.32; 121.708
EgonFloresstratovolcano1,703 metres (5,587 ft)20088°40′S 122°27′E / 8.67°S 122.45°E / -8.67; 122.45
IlimudaFloresstratovolcano1,100 metres (3,600 ft)unknown8°28′41″S 122°40′16″E / 8.478°S 122.671°E / -8.478; 122.671
LewotobiFloresstratovolcano1,703 metres (5,587 ft)30 May 2003 (2)8°32′31″S 122°46′30″E / 8.542°S 122.775°E / -8.542; 122.775
LerobolengFlorescomplex volcano1,117 metres (3,665 ft)26 June 2003 (3)8°21′29″S 122°50′31″E / 8.358°S 122.842°E / -8.358; 122.842
Riang KotangFloresfumarole200 metres (660 ft)unknown8°18′00″S 122°53′31″E / 8.30°S 122.892°E / -8.30; 122.892
IlibolengAdonara Islandstratovolcano1,659 metres (5,443 ft)June 1993 (1)8°20′31″S 123°15′29″E / 8.342°S 123.258°E / -8.342; 123.258
LewotoloLembatastratovolcano1,423 metres (4,669 ft)2020 (ongoing)8°16′19″S 123°30′18″E / 8.272°S 123.505°E / -8.272; 123.505
IlilabalekanLembatastratovolcano1,018 metres (3,340 ft)unknown8°33′S 123°23′E / 8.55°S 123.38°E / -8.55; 123.38
IliwerungLembatacomplex volcano1,018 metres (3,340 ft)29 November 20218°32′S 123°34′E / 8.53°S 123.57°E / -8.53; 123.57
Batu TaraKomba islandstratovolcano748 metres (2,454 ft)2007-15 (2)7°47′31″S 123°34′44″E / 7.792°S 123.579°E / -7.792; 123.579
SirungPantar Islandcomplex volcano862 metres (2,828 ft)20218°30′29″S 124°07′48″E / 8.508°S 124.13°E / -8.508; 124.13
Yersey-submarine−3,800 metres (−12,500 ft)unknown7°32′S 123°57′E / 7.53°S 123.95°E / -7.53; 123.95

Banda Sea

The Banda Sea in the south of the Molucca archipelago includes a small group of islands. Three major tectonic plates beneath the sea, Eurasian, Pacific and Indo-Australian plates, have been converging since the Mesozoic epoch.[19] Volcanoes in the Banda Sea are mainly islands, but some are submarine volcanoes.

NameShapeElevationLast eruption (VEI)Coordinates
Emperor of Chinasubmarine−2,850 metres (−9,350 ft)unknown6°37′S 124°13′E / 6.62°S 124.22°E / -6.62; 124.22
Nieuwerkerksubmarine−2,285 metres (−7,497 ft)unknown6°36′00″S 124°40′30″E / 6.60°S 124.675°E / -6.60; 124.675
Gunungapi Wetarstratovolcano282 metres (925 ft)1699 (3)6°38′31″S 126°39′00″E / 6.642°S 126.65°E / -6.642; 126.65
Wurlalistratovolcano868 metres (2,848 ft)3 June 1892 (2)7°07′30″S 128°40′30″E / 7.125°S 128.675°E / -7.125; 128.675
Teonstratovolcano655 metres (2,149 ft)3 June 1904 (2)6°55′12″S 129°07′30″E / 6.92°S 129.125°E / -6.92; 129.125
Nilastratovolcano781 metres (2,562 ft)7 May 1968 (1)6°44′S 129°30′E / 6.73°S 129.50°E / -6.73; 129.50
Seruastratovolcano641 metres (2,103 ft)18 September 1921 (2)6°18′S 130°00′E / 6.30°S 130.00°E / -6.30; 130.00
Manukstratovolcano282 metres (925 ft)unknown5°31′48″S 130°17′31″E / 5.53°S 130.292°E / -5.53; 130.292
Banda Apicaldera640 metres (2,100 ft)9 May 1988 (3)4°31′30″S 129°52′16″E / 4.525°S 129.871°E / -4.525; 129.871

Sulawesi and Sangihe Islands

Four peninsulas dominate the shape of Sulawesi island (formerly known as Celebes). The central part is a high mountainous area, but mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern peninsula and continuously stretch to the north to Sangihe Islands. The Sangihe Islands mark the border with the Philippines.

NameShapeElevationLast eruption (VEI)Coordinates
Colostratovolcano507 metres (1,663 ft)18 July 1983 (4)0°10′12″S 121°36′29″E / 0.17°S 121.608°E / -0.17; 121.608
Ambangcomplex volcano1,795 metres (5,889 ft)1845 ± 5 years0°45′N 124°25′E / 0.75°N 124.42°E / 0.75; 124.42
Soputanstratovolcano1,784 metres (5,853 ft)December 20181°06′29″N 124°43′48″E / 1.108°N 124.73°E / 1.108; 124.73
Sempucaldera1,549 metres (5,082 ft)unknown1°07′48″N 124°45′29″E / 1.13°N 124.758°E / 1.13; 124.758
Tondanocaldera1,202 metres (3,944 ft)unknown1°14′N 124°50′E / 1.23°N 124.83°E / 1.23; 124.83
Lokon-Empungstratovolcano1,580 metres (5,180 ft)20151°21′29″N 124°47′31″E / 1.358°N 124.792°E / 1.358; 124.792
Mahawustratovolcano1,324 metres (4,344 ft)16 November 1977 (0)1°21′29″N 124°51′29″E / 1.358°N 124.858°E / 1.358; 124.858
Klabatstratovolcano1,995 metres (6,545 ft)unknown1°28′N 125°02′E / 1.47°N 125.03°E / 1.47; 125.03
Tongkokostratovolcano1,149 metres (3,770 ft)1880 (1)1°31′N 125°12′E / 1.52°N 125.20°E / 1.52; 125.20
Ruangstratovolcano725 metres (2,379 ft)25 September 2002 (4)2°18′N 125°22′E / 2.30°N 125.37°E / 2.30; 125.37
Karangetangstratovolcano1,784 metres (5,853 ft)2019 (ongoing)2°47′N 125°24′E / 2.78°N 125.40°E / 2.78; 125.40
Banua Wuhusubmarine−5 metres (−16 ft)18 July 1919 (3)3°08′17″N 125°29′28″E / 3.138°N 125.491°E / 3.138; 125.491
Awustratovolcano1,320 metres (4,330 ft)2 June 2004 (2)3°40′N 125°30′E / 3.67°N 125.50°E / 3.67; 125.50
Submarine 1922submarine−5,000 metres (−16,000 ft)unknown3°58′N 125°10′E / 3.97°N 125.17°E / 3.97; 125.17
Vuurberg (Dutch: fire mountain, Gunung Api) in Bandanaira

Halmahera

Halmahera island in the north of Molucca archipelago has been formed by the movement of three tectonic plates resulting in two intersecting mountain ranges, which form four rocky peninsulas separated by three deep bays. A volcanic arc stretches from north to south in the west side of Halmahera, some of which are volcanic islands, for instance, Gamalama and Tidore. Gamalama's island name is Ternate and it has been the centre for spice trading since the Portuguese Empire opened a fort in 1512. Due to its location as the centre for spice trading during the Age of Discovery, historical records of volcanic eruptions in Halmahera have been available as far back as the early 16th century.

NameShapeElevationLast eruption (VEI)Coordinates
Tarakanpyroclastic cone318 metres (1,043 ft)unknown1°50′N 127°50′E / 1.83°N 127.83°E / 1.83; 127.83
Dukonocomplex volcano1,335 metres (4,380 ft)1933-2021 (ongoing)1°41′N 127°53′E / 1.68°N 127.88°E / 1.68; 127.88
Tobaruunknown1,035 metres (3,396 ft)unknown1°38′N 127°40′E / 1.63°N 127.67°E / 1.63; 127.67
Ibustratovolcano1,325 metres (4,347 ft)2008-21 (ongoing)1°29′17″N 127°37′48″E / 1.488°N 127.63°E / 1.488; 127.63
Gamkonorastratovolcano1,635 metres (5,364 ft)9 July 2007 (?)1°23′N 127°32′E / 1.38°N 127.53°E / 1.38; 127.53
Todoko-Ranucaldera979 metres (3,212 ft)unknown1°15′N 127°28′E / 1.25°N 127.47°E / 1.25; 127.47
Jailolostratovolcano1,130 metres (3,710 ft)unknown1°05′N 127°25′E / 1.08°N 127.42°E / 1.08; 127.42
Hiristratovolcano630 metres (2,070 ft)unknown0°54′N 127°19′E / 0.90°N 127.32°E / 0.90; 127.32
Gamalamastratovolcano1,715 metres (5,627 ft)20180°48′N 127°20′E / 0.80°N 127.33°E / 0.80; 127.33
Tidorestratovolcano1,730 metres (5,680 ft)unknown0°39′29″N 127°24′00″E / 0.658°N 127.40°E / 0.658; 127.40
Marestratovolcano308 metres (1,010 ft)unknown0°34′N 127°24′E / 0.57°N 127.40°E / 0.57; 127.40
Motistratovolcano950 metres (3,120 ft)unknown0°27′N 127°24′E / 0.45°N 127.40°E / 0.45; 127.40
Makianstratovolcano1,357 metres (4,452 ft)29 July 1988 (3)0°19′N 127°24′E / 0.32°N 127.40°E / 0.32; 127.40
Tigalalustratovolcano422 metres (1,385 ft)unknown0°04′N 127°25′E / 0.07°N 127.42°E / 0.07; 127.42
Amasingstratovolcano1,030 metres (3,380 ft)unknown0°32′S 127°29′E / 0.53°S 127.48°E / -0.53; 127.48
Bibinoistratovolcano900 metres (3,000 ft)unknown0°46′S 127°43′E / 0.77°S 127.72°E / -0.77; 127.72
A drawing of a volcano erupting orange lava and black smoke into the air with a body of water in the foreground and ships sailing in it.
Depiction of Gamalama erupting in the early 1700s with a Portuguese fort shown

Major eruptions

Below is a list of selected major eruptions of volcanoes in Indonesia, sorted chronologically by the starting date of the eruption. Only eruptions with scale 3 or above on VEI are given with known sources and fatalities, except if smaller scale eruptions resulted in some fatalities.

Eruption dateVolcanoCessation dateVEICharacteristicsTsunamiTephra volumeFatalitySources
3 December 2023Marapi8 December 2023 3 cv,se,pf,fa,lm,ccnoN/A24
4 December 2021Semeru5 December 2021 4 cv,se,pf,fa,lm,ccnoN/A69
21 December 2018Anak Krakatoa10 January 2019 3 cv,se,pf,fa,lm,cc1–2 mN/A437 [20][21]
13 February 2014Kelut15 February 2014 4 cv,cl,pf,ph,ld,lmno0.16 km34 [22]
3 November 2010Merapi8 November 2010 4 cv,pf,ld,lmnoN/A353 [5]
10 February 1990KelutMarch 1990 4 cv,cl,pf,ph,ld,lmno0.13 km335 [23]
18 July 1983ColoDecember 1983 4 cv,pf,phnoN/A0 [23]
5 April 1982Galunggung8 January 1983 4 cv,pf,lf,lmno0.37 km3 +68 [24][25]
6 October 1972MerapiMarch 1985 2 cv,pf,lf,ld,lmno0.021 km329 [5]
26 April 1966Kelut27 April 1966 4 cv,cl,pf,lmno0.089 km3212 [23]
17 March 1963Agung27 January 1964 5 cv,pf,lf,lmno1 km31,148 [26]
31 August 1951Kelut31 August 1951 4 cv,cl,pf,lmno0.2 km37 [23]
25 November 1930MerapiSeptember 1931 3 cv,rf,pf,lf,ld,lmno0.0017 km31,369 [5]
19 May 1919Kelut20 May 1919 4 cv,cl,pf,lmno0.19 km35,110 [23]
7 June 1892Awu12 June 1892 3 cv,pf,lmyesN/A1,532 [27]
26 August 1883KrakatoaFebruary 1884 6 cv,se,pf,fa,lm,cc15–42 m5–8.5 km336,600 [1][26][28]
15 April 1872Merapi21 April 1872 4 cv,pfno0.33 km3200 [5]
2 March 1856Awu17 March 1856 3 cv,pf,lmyes0.51±0.50 km32,806 [27]
8 October 1822GalunggungDecember 1822 5 cv,pf,ld,lmno1 km3 +4,011 [23]
10 April 1815Mount Tambora15 July 1815 7 cv,pf,cc1–2 m160 km371,000+ [3][29]
6 August 1812Awu8 August 1812 4 cv,pf,lmno0.55±0.50 km3963 [27]
12 August 1772Papandayan12 August 1772 3 cv,phnoN/A2,957 [30]
4 August 1672Merapiunknown 3 cv,pf,lmnoN/A3,000 [5]
1586Kelutunknown 5 cf,cl,lmno1 km3 +10,000 [23]
September 1257Samalasunknown 7 [31]
≈ 74,000 BPTobaunknown 8 pf,lf,cclikely2,800 km3Possible near extinction of all the human population [2]
Notes: cv=central vent eruption, pf=pyroclastic flows, lf=lava flows, lm=lahar mudflows, cl=crater lake eruption, ph=phreatic eruption, ld=lava dome extrusion, cc=caldera collapse, se=submarine eruption, fa=fumarole activity, rf=radial fissure eruption.

See also

References

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 Winchester, Simon (2003). Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-621285-2.
  2. 1 2 3 Oppenheimer, C. (2002). "Limited global change due to the largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ≈74 kyr BP?". Quaternary Science Reviews. 21 (14–15): 1593–1609. Bibcode:2002QSRv...21.1593O. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00154-8.
  3. 1 2 3 Stothers, Richard B. (1984). "The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath". Science. 224 (4654): 1191–1198. Bibcode:1984Sci...224.1191S. doi:10.1126/science.224.4654.1191. PMID 17819476. S2CID 23649251.
  4. ↑ "Kelut Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 19 December 2006.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Merapi Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 19 December 2006.
  6. ↑ "Indonesia Miliki 127 Gunung Api Aktif". 2 May 2012.
  7. ↑ "Volcano Data Criteria". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
  8. ↑ "Centre of Volcanology & Geological Hazard Mitigation". Volcanological Survey of Indonesia. Archived from the original on 16 December 2006. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
  9. 1 2 Simoes, M.; Avouac, J.P.; Cattin, R.; Henry, P. (2004). "The Sumatra subduction zone: A case for a locked fault zone extending into the mantle" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 109 (B10): B10402. Bibcode:2004JGRB..10910402S. doi:10.1029/2003JB002958. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 September 2006.
  10. ↑ Subarya, C.; Chlieh, M.; Prawirodirdjo, L.; Avouac, J.P.; Bock, Y.; Sieh, K.; Meltzner, A.; Natawidjaja, D.H.; McCaffrey, R. (2006). "Plate-boundary deformation associated with the great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake" (PDF). Nature. 440 (7080): 46–51. Bibcode:2006Natur.440...46S. doi:10.1038/nature04522. hdl:10356/94250. PMID 16511486. S2CID 4429816. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 September 2006.
  11. ↑ Lay, T.; Kanamori, H.; Ammon, C.; Nettles, M.; Ward, S.; Aster, R.; Beck, S.; Bilek, S.; Brudzinski, M.; Butler, R.; DeShon, H.; Ekstrom, G. (2005). "The Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 26 December 2004" (PDF). Science. 308 (5725): 1127–1133. Bibcode:2005Sci...308.1127L. doi:10.1126/science.1112250. PMID 15905392. S2CID 43739943. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2006.
  12. ↑ "Smithsonian / USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report". Smithsonian Institution. 15 August 2020. Retrieved 15 August 2020.
  13. ↑ "Masurai". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  14. ↑ Whittaker, R. J.; Bush, M. B. (1993). "Anak Krakatau and old Krakatau: a reply". GeoJournal. 29 (4): 417–420. doi:10.1007/BF00807545. S2CID 155054596.
  15. ↑ "Semeru Weekly Reports". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
  16. ↑ International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (1995). "Decade Volcano Update". Bulletin of Volcanology. 57 (1): 82–83. Bibcode:1995BVol...57...76.. doi:10.1007/BF00298711. S2CID 195243529.
  17. ↑ Ansje Löhr; Thom Bogaard; Alex Heikens; Martin Hendriks; Sri Sumarti; Manfred van Bergen; Kees C.A.M. van Gestel; Nico van Straalen; Pieter Vroonand & Budi Widianarko (2005). "Natural Pollution Caused by the Extremely Acid Crater Lake Kawah Ijen, East Java, Indonesia". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 12 (2): 89–95. doi:10.1065/espr2004.09.118. PMID 15859115. S2CID 128470417.
  18. ↑ H. A. Brouwer (July 1939). "Exploration in the Lesser Sunda Islands". The Geographical Journal. 94 (1): 1–10. doi:10.2307/1788584. JSTOR 1788584.
  19. ↑ Christian Honthaasa; Jean-Pierre Réhaulta; René C. Maurya; Hervé Bellona; Christophe Hémonda; Jacques-André Maloda; Jean-Jacques Cornéeb; Michel Villeneuveb; Joseph Cottena; Safri Burhanuddinc; Hervé Guilloud; Nicolas Arnaud (1998). "A Neogene back-arc origin for the Banda Sea basins: geochemical and geochronological constraints from the Banda ridges (East Indonesia)". Tectonophysics. 298 (4): 297–317. Bibcode:1998Tectp.298..297H. doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(98)00190-5.
  20. ↑ "The rise and fall of Anak Krakatau | VolcanoCafe". 4 January 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
  21. ↑ "Global Volcanism Program | Krakatau". volcano.si.edu. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
  22. ↑ "Kelut Eruptive History". volcano.si.edu. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Large Holocene Eruptions". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 18 December 2006.
  24. ↑ Katili, J.A. & Sudradjat, A. (1984). "Galunggung: the 1982-1983 eruption". Volcanology Survei Indonesia: 102.
  25. ↑ "Galunggung, Java, Indonesia". Volcano World. Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University. Archived from the original on 16 June 2008. Retrieved 30 December 2006.
  26. 1 2 Michael R. Rampino & Stephen Self (1982). "Historic eruptions of Tambora (1815), Krakatau (1883), and Agung (1963), their stratospheric aerosols, and climatic impact". Quaternary Research. 18 (2): 127–143. Bibcode:1982QuRes..18..127R. doi:10.1016/0033-5894(82)90065-5. S2CID 140594715.
  27. 1 2 3 "Awu's Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
  28. ↑ B.H. Choi; E. Pelinovsky; K.O. Kim; J.S. Lee (2003). "Simulation of the trans-oceanic tsunami propagation due to the 1883 Krakatau volcanic eruption". Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 3 (5): 321–332. Bibcode:2003NHESS...3..321C. doi:10.5194/nhess-3-321-2003.
  29. ↑ Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815". Progress in Physical Geography. 27 (2): 230–259. doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra. S2CID 131663534.
  30. ↑ "The Deadliest Eruptions". Volcano World. Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University. Archived from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 15 March 2009.
  31. ↑ Vidal, Céline M.; Komorowski, Jean-Christophe; Métrich, Nicole; Pratomo, Indyo; Kartadinata, Nugraha; Prambada, Oktory; Michel, Agnès; Carazzo, Guillaume; Lavigne, Franck; Rodysill, Jessica; Fontijn, Karen; Surono (8 August 2015). "Dynamics of the major plinian eruption of Samalas in 1257 A.D. (Lombok, Indonesia)". Bulletin of Volcanology. 77 (9): 73. Bibcode:2015BVol...77...73V. doi:10.1007/s00445-015-0960-9. S2CID 127929333.

Sources

  1. ↑ Tom Simkin & Lee Siebert (1994). Volcanoes of the World: A Regional Directory, Gazetteer, and Chronology of Volcanism During the Last 10,000 Years (2nd ed.). Geoscience Press. ISBN 978-0-945005-12-4.
  2. ↑ M. Neumann van Padang (1951). "Indonesia". Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World and Solfatara Fields (1 ed.). Rome: IAVCEI. pp. 1–271.
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