A mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) being felled using springboards, c. 1884–1917, Australia
McGiffert Log Loader in East Texas, US, c. 1907
Lumber under snow in Montgomery, Colorado, 1880s
Lumber under snow in Montgomery, Colorado, 1880s

Logging is the process of cutting, processing, and moving trees to a location for transport. It may include skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks[1] or skeleton cars. In forestry, the term logging is sometimes used narrowly to describe the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard. In common usage, however, the term may cover a range of forestry or silviculture activities.

Logging is the beginning of a supply chain that provides raw material for many products societies worldwide use for housing, construction, energy, and consumer paper products. Logging systems are also used to manage forests, reduce the risk of wildfires, and restore ecosystem functions,[2] though their efficiency for these purposes has been challenged.[3]

Logging frequently has negative impacts. The harvesting procedure itself may be illegal, including the use of corrupt means to gain access to forests; extraction without permission or from a protected area; the cutting of protected species; or the extraction of timber in excess of agreed limits.[4] It may involve the so-called "timber mafia".[5][6] Excess logging can lead to irreparable harm to ecosystems, such as deforestation and biodiversity loss.[7][8] Infrastructure for logging can also lead to other environmental degradation. These negative environmental impacts can lead to environmental conflict.[7][8] Additionally, there is significant occupational injury risk involved in logging.

Logging can take many formats. Clearcutting (or "block cutting") is not necessarily considered a type of logging but a harvesting or silviculture method. Cutting trees with the highest value and leaving those with lower value, often diseased or malformed trees, is referred to as high grading. It is sometimes called selective logging, and confused with selection cutting, the practice of managing stands by harvesting a proportion of trees.[9] Logging usually refers to above-ground forestry logging. Submerged forests exist on land that has been flooded by damming to create reservoirs. Harvesting trees from forests submerged by flooding or dam creation is called underwater logging, a form of timber recovery.[10]

Clearcutting

Clearcutting, or clearfelling, is a method of harvesting that removes essentially all the standing trees in a selected area. Depending on management objectives, a clearcut may or may not have reserve trees left to attain goals other than regeneration,[1] including wildlife habitat management, mitigation of potential erosion or water quality concerns. Silviculture objectives for clearcutting, (for example, healthy regeneration of new trees on the site) and a focus on forestry distinguish it from deforestation. Other methods include shelterwood cutting, group selective, single selective, seed-tree cutting, patch cut, and retention cutting.

Logging methods

The Washington Iron Works Skidder in Nuniong is the only one of its kind in Australia, with donkey engine, spars, and cables still rigged for work.

The above operations can be carried out by different methods, of which the following three are considered industrial methods:

Tree-length logging / stem-only harvesting

Trees are felled and then delimbed and topped at the stump. The log is then transported to the landing, where it is bucked and loaded on a truck. This leaves the slash (and the nutrients it contains) in the cut area, where it must be further treated if wild land fires are of concern.

Whole-tree logging

Horse logging in Poland
Cable logging in French Alps (cable grue Larix 3T)

Trees and plants are felled and transported to the roadside with top and limbs intact. There have been advancements to the process which now allows a logger or harvester to cut the tree down, top, and delimb a tree in the same process. This ability is due to the advancement in the style felling head that can be used. The trees are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be treated at the landing. In areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can be chipped and used for the production of electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also refers to utilization of the entire tree including branches and tops.[11] This technique removes both nutrients and soil cover from the site and so can be harmful to the long-term health of the area if no further action is taken, however, depending on the species, many of the limbs are often broken off in handling so the result may not be as different from tree-length logging as it might seem.

Cut-to-length logging

Cut-to-length logging is the process of felling, delimbing, bucking, and sorting (pulpwood, sawlog, etc.) at the stump area, leaving limbs and tops in the forest. Mechanical harvesters fell the tree, delimb, and buck it, and place the resulting logs in bunks to be brought to the landing by a skidder or forwarder. This method is routinely available for trees up to 900 mm (35 in) in diameter.

Transporting logs

Timber floating in Vilnius, 1873

Felled logs are then generally transported to a sawmill to be cut into lumber, to a paper mill for paper pulp, or for other uses, for example, as fence posts. Many methods have been used to move logs from where they were cut to a rail line or directly to a sawmill or paper mill. The cheapest and historically most common method is making use of a river's current to float floating tree trunks downstream, by either log driving or timber rafting. (Some logs sink because of high resin content; these are called deadheads.) In the late 1800s and the first half of the 1900s, the most common method was the high-wheel loader, which was a set of wheels over ten feet tall that the log or logs were strapped beneath. Oxen were at first used with the high-wheel loaders,but in the 1930s tractors replaced the oxen.[12] In 1960 the largest high wheel loader was built for service in California. Called the Bunyan Buggie, the unit was self-propelled and had wheels 24 feet (7.3 m) high and a front dozer blade that was 30 feet (9.1 m) across and 6 feet (1.8 m) high.[13] Log transportation can be challenging and costly since trees are often far from roads or watercourses. Road building and maintenance may be restricted in National Forests or other wilderness areas since it can cause erosion in riparian zones. When felled logs sit adjacent to a road, heavy machinery may simply lift logs onto trucks. Most often, special heavy equipment is used to gather the logs from the site and move them close to the road to be lifted on trucks. Many methods exist to transport felled logs lying away from roads. Cable logging involves a yarder, which pulls one or several logs along the ground to a platform where a truck is waiting. When the terrain is too uneven to pull logs on the ground, a skyline can lift logs off the ground vertically, similar to a ski lift. Heli-logging, which uses heavy-lift helicopters to remove cut trees from forests by lifting them on cables attached to a helicopter, may be used when cable logging is not allowed for environmental reasons or when roads are lacking. It reduces the level of infrastructure required to log in a specific location, reducing the environmental impact of logging.[14] Less mainstream or now for the most part superseded forms of log transport include horse logging and the use of oxen,[15] or balloon logging.

Safety considerations

Logging is a dangerous occupation. In the United States, it has consistently been one of the most hazardous industries and was recognized by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.[16][2]

In 2008, the logging industry employed 86,000 workers and accounted for 93 deaths. This resulted in a fatality rate of 108.1 deaths per 100,000 workers that year. This rate is over 30 times higher than the overall fatality rate.[17] Forestry/logging-related injuries (fatal and non-fatal) are often difficult to track through formal reporting mechanisms. Thus, some programs have begun to monitor injuries through publicly available reports such as news media.[18] The logging industry experiences the highest fatality rate of 23.2 per 100,000 full-time equivalent (FTE) workers and a non-fatal incident rate of 8.5 per 100 FTE workers. The most common type of injuries or illnesses at work include musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), which include an extensive list of "inflammatory and degenerative conditions affecting the muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, peripheral nerves, and supporting blood vessels."[19] Loggers work with heavy, moving weights, and use tools such as chainsaws and heavy equipment on uneven and sometimes steep or unstable terrain. Loggers also deal with severe environmental conditions, such as inclement weather and severe heat or cold. An injured logger is often far from professional emergency treatment.

Traditionally, the cry of "Timber!" developed as a warning alerting fellow workers in an area that a tree is being felled, so they should be alert to avoid being struck. The term "widowmaker" for timber that is neither standing nor fallen to the ground demonstrates another emphasis on situational awareness as a safety principle.

In British Columbia, Canada, the BC Forest Safety Council was created in September 2004 as a not-for-profit society dedicated to promoting safety in the forest sector. It works with employers, workers, contractors, and government agencies to implement fundamental changes necessary to make it safer to earn a living in forestry.[20]

The risks experienced in logging operations can be somewhat reduced, where conditions permit, by the use of mechanical tree harvesters, skidders, and forwarders.[21]

Environmental impact

The impact of logging cannot be overstated as it adverse effect can be seen in the ecosystem at large. some of these effect includes:

1. Deforestation: Logging often leads to deforestation, the complete removal of trees from a particular area. This loss of forest cover can have dire consequences, including the disruption of the local ecosystem and a reduction in carbon sequestration, which contributes to climate change.[22]

2. Habitat Loss: The felling of trees results in the destruction of habitats for countless plant and animal species. Forests are home to a diverse array of wildlife, and when these habitats are lost, species can be pushed to the brink of extinction.[22]

3. Soil Erosion: Logging can contribute to soil erosion, especially when clear-cutting methods are used. The removal of trees and their root systems disrupts the stability of the soil, making it more susceptible to erosion through wind and water.[22]

4. Water Quality: The run-off from logging operations can negatively impact water quality. Sediment and chemicals used in logging can enter nearby water bodies, causing pollution and harming aquatic ecosystems.[22]

5. Biodiversity Loss: The destruction of forests and their replacement with monoculture plantations can result in a significant loss of biodiversity. Native species are often unable to thrive in such altered environments.[22]

6. Carbon Emissions: The logging process, including the machinery used and the decomposition of felled trees, releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming and climate change.[22]

7. Impact on Indigenous Communities: Logging can displace indigenous communities that depend on forests for their livelihoods. This disruption can lead to social and economic challenges for these communities.[22]

8. Spread of Invasive Species : Logging operations can inadvertently facilitate the spread of invasive plant species, further impacting native flora and fauna.[22]

9. Loss of Ecosystem Services: Forests provide a wide range of ecosystem services, including water purification, air quality improvement, and soil fertility maintenance. Logging can disrupt these essential services, affecting not only the local environment but also the broader region.[22]

10. Long-term Effects: The environmental impacts of logging can have long-lasting effects, altering landscapes and ecosystems for generations to come.[22]

Efforts to mitigate these environmental consequences include sustainable forestry practices, reforestation, and the implementation of conservation measures. These measures aim to strike a balance between the economic benefits of logging and the need to protect the environment and biodiversity for current and future generations.

Sustainable logging practices

Sustainable logging practices, also known as sustainable forestry or eco-friendly forestry, are a set of strategies and approaches aimed at minimizing the environmental impact of logging while ensuring the long-term health and viability of forest ecosystems. These practices are crucial for balancing the economic benefits of logging with the need to conserve natural resources. Some key sustainable logging practices include:[23]

1. Reforestation and Afforestation: Reforestation involves replanting trees in areas where they have been harvested, helping to restore forest cover and maintain ecosystem services. Afforestation involves planting trees in areas that were not previously forested. These practices help combat deforestation and promote carbon sequestration.[23]

2. Selective Harvesting: Selective logging, also known as selective harvesting or low-impact logging, involves the careful removal of specific trees while leaving the rest of the forest intact. This method preserves the overall forest structure, minimizes habitat disruption, and reduces the risk of soil erosion.[23]

3. Reducing Waste and Biomass Utilization: Sustainable practices involve making efficient use of the harvested trees. This includes processing and utilizing not only the valuable timber but also byproducts such as branches and sawdust. Biomass utilization for energy production can reduce waste and contribute to sustainable practices.[23]

4. Buffer Zones and Protected Areas: Establishing buffer zones and protected areas around logging sites helps protect critical habitats, water sources, and sensitive ecosystems. These zones act as a barrier between logging activities and pristine natural areas.[23]

5. Certifications and Standards: Organizations like the Fore[23] st Stewardship Council (FSC) have developed certification systems that promote sustainable forestry practices. These certifications ensure that forests are managed in an environmentally responsible, socially beneficial, and economically viable manner. FSC-certified products give consumers the confidence that they are supporting sustainable forestry.[23]

6. Forest Management Plans: Effective forest management plans are essential for guiding sustainable logging operations. These plans take into account ecological factors, species diversity, and regeneration capabilities to minimize negative impacts on the forest.[23]

7. Community Engagement: Sustainable forestry often involves collaboration with local communities, ensuring that their interests and livelihoods are considered in logging operations. This can include providing employment opportunities, supporting local initiatives, and respecting indigenous rights.[23]

8. Certified Logging Companies: Logging companies that adhere to sustainable practices and certification standards play a crucial role in mitigating environmental impact. These companies follow guidelines for responsible logging and regularly undergo audits to maintain certification.[23]

9. Research and Innovation: Ongoing research and innovation in sustainable logging practices contribute to improved methods and technology for minimizing the impact on the environment.[23]

Sustainable logging practices are designed to conserve biodiversity, protect natural resources, and reduce the carbon footprint of the logging industry. By implementing these practices, the logging industry can contribute to the long-term health and sustainability of forest ecosystems while still meeting economic and societal needs.

Logging regulations and legislation

Logging activities are subject to a complex web of national and international regulations and laws designed to address environmental conservation, sustainable forestry, and the protection of indigenous rights. These regulations and legislation help balance the economic interests of the logging industry with the need to safeguard the environment and the rights of local communities and indigenous populations. Key aspects of logging regulations include:[24]

National regulations

1. Forest Management Plans: Many countries require logging operations to develop and adhere to comprehensive forest management plans. These plans set out guidelines for sustainable logging, reforestation, and habitat protection.[24]

2. Permit and Licensing Systems: Logging companies often need permits and licenses to operate legally. These permits come with conditions and regulations that must be followed, such as sustainable harvesting practices and adherence to environmental impact assessments.[24]

3. Protected Areas and Reserves: National governments establish protected areas and reserves to conserve ecologically sensitive regions. Logging is often restricted or prohibited in these areas to preserve their unique ecosystems.[24]

4. Environmental Impact Assessments: Prior to commencing logging, companies may be required to conduct environmental impact assessments to evaluate potential ecological and social consequences. These assessments help inform decision-making and mitigate adverse impacts.[24]

5. Endangered Species Protections: Many countries have laws protecting endangered and threatened species, which may restrict logging in areas inhabited by these species.[24]

International agreements and organizations

1. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora): CITES is an international treaty that regulates the trade of endangered species. Logging activities in areas with endangered species may be restricted or regulated under CITES.

2. UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change): The UNFCCC addresses climate change and the role of forests in carbon sequestration. Logging activities can affect a country's greenhouse gas emissions, making it a key consideration in international climate agreements.

3. REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation): REDD+ is an initiative aimed at reducing deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries. It provides financial incentives for forest conservation and sustainable management.

4. Forest Certification Programs: Organizations like the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) provide certification for sustainably managed forests. Products bearing these certifications are recognized as originating from responsibly managed sources.

5. Indigenous Rights: Various international agreements, such as the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, emphasize the protection of indigenous rights, including their rights to land and resources. These agreements have influenced national and international policies regarding logging in indigenous territories.

National and international logging regulations and legislation reflect the growing awareness of the importance of sustainable forestry, biodiversity conservation, and the rights of indigenous and local communities. These regulations play a vital role in ensuring that logging activities are carried out in an environmentally responsible and socially equitable manner.

Economic and social aspects of the logging industry

The logging industry plays a significant role in the global economy, contributing to various economic and social dimensions, including employment, local economies, and international trade.[25]

Employment

   Local Employment: Logging operations, including felling, processing, and transportation, provide direct employment opportunities for a considerable number of individuals in forested regions. This includes forest workers, machinery operators, and administrative staff.[25]

  Indirect Employment: The logging industry generates indirect employment in related sectors, such as wood processing, transportation, and manufacturing. It supports jobs in sawmills, pulp and paper mills, and the production of wood products.[25]

 Rural Communities: Logging often sustains rural and remote communities, where other employment opportunities may be limited. In some areas, it is a primary source of livelihood.[25]

Local economies

  Economic Activity: Logging contributes to the economic vitality of forested regions, promoting economic activity and fostering a stable income for local residents. It can support infrastructure development and public services.[26]

  Revenue Generation: Local and national governments often derive revenue from logging activities through taxation, permits, and royalties. These funds can be reinvested in community development and conservation efforts.[26]

  Small Businesses: The logging industry can facilitate the growth of small businesses and service providers in areas where large-scale forestry operations are present.[26]

International trade

Wood Products Export: Many countries engage in international trade of wood and wood products. Exporting timber, lumber, and other wood-based products contributes to the balance of trade and foreign exchange earnings.[26]

 Global Markets: The logging industry is interconnected with global markets, with demand for wood products in construction, manufacturing, and paper production sectors worldwide. This has led to international supply chains and the globalization of the industry.[26]

Certifications: Certifications like the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) can facilitate international trade by assuring consumers that products originate from responsibly managed sources.[26]

Challenges

   Environmental Concerns: Balancing the economic benefits of logging with environmental conservation remains a challenge. Over-exploitation, habitat destruction, and illegal logging can have severe consequences for ecosystems.[26]

  Social Issues: The logging industry can also lead to social challenges, including displacement of indigenous communities, land rights conflicts, and labor disputes. Ensuring the rights of local communities and indigenous groups is essential for social sustainability.[26]

Sustainable practices

   - Sustainable logging practices aim to mitigate the environmental and social impact of logging while maintaining its economic benefits. These practices promote responsible harvesting, reforestation, and community engagement.[26]

In conclusion, the logging industry plays a crucial role in economic development, particularly in rural areas, and contributes to international trade. However, it must be managed sustainably and responsibly to balance economic gains with social and environmental well-being. Achieving this balance is a global challenge and often requires cooperation between governments, industry stakeholders, and environmental organizations.

Logging industry and corporations

Major logging companies

1. Weyerhaeuser Company: Weyerhaeuser is one of the largest timberland owners and wood product manufacturers in the United States. The company practices sustainable forestry and is involved in the production of lumber, plywood, and other wood products.

2. Rayonier Inc.: Rayonier specializes in timberland management and real estate. They own and manage large timberland holdings, and their operations include logging and the production of specialty cellulose products.

3. West Fraser Timber Co. Ltd: West Fraser is one of the largest lumber producers in North America. They are involved in various wood product segments, including lumber, pulp, and panel products.

4. Resolute Forest Products: Resolute is a leading manufacturer of forest products, including pulp, paper, and lumber. The company emphasizes sustainable forestry practices and forest certification.[27]

5. Stora Enso: Stora Enso is a global company headquartered in Finland, and it's one of the largest wood products and paper manufacturers in the world. They operate in several countries and are committed to sustainability.

6. Interfor Corporation: Interfor is a leading lumber producer with operations in Canada and the United States. They are known for their sustainable forestry practices and investment in modern sawmills.[27]

7. UPM-Kymmene Corporation: UPM is a Finnish company involved in the production of various forest products, including pulp, paper, and plywood. They have a strong focus on sustainable forestry and environmental responsibility.

8. Suzano S.A.: Suzano is a Brazilian company known for its involvement in the pulp and paper industry. They have a significant presence in eucalyptus plantations, which are used for pulp production.

Industry practices

Major logging companies typically implement various practices, which may include:

Sustainable Forestry: Many large companies adhere to sustainable forestry practices, such as selective harvesting and reforestation, to minimize environmental impacts and ensure a long-term timber supply.

Certifications: Some companies seek certifications like FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) and PEFC (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification) to demonstrate their commitment to responsible forestry.

- Research and Innovation: Logging companies often invest in research and technology to improve logging efficiency, reduce waste, and minimize environmental impact.

- Community Engagement: Engaging with local communities and indigenous groups is crucial to building positive relationships and addressing social aspects of logging.

- Environmental Impact Assessments: Major logging companies may conduct environmental impact assessments to understand and mitigate potential ecological consequences of their operations.

Roles in the industry

Major logging companies play significant roles in the industry by:

- Supplying wood and wood products to various sectors, including construction, manufacturing, and the paper industry.

- Managing extensive timberland holdings, which can involve sustainable forestry practices and conservation efforts.

- Shaping industry standards and best practices, especially regarding sustainability and responsible logging.

- Participating in global discussions and initiatives related to sustainable forestry, biodiversity conservation, and environmental responsibility.

It's important to research the specific practices and roles of these companies at the time of your article update, as the industry is subject to changes and developments. Additionally, there are many other regional and local logging companies that may also have important roles in their respective areas.

Controversies

The logging industry is often mired in controversies that revolve around environmental, social, and ethical concerns. These controversies have prompted scrutiny, regulation, and activism. Here are some of the key logging controversies:[28]

Illegal logging

 Issue: Illegal logging involves the unauthorized harvest and trade of timber, often in violation of national and international laws. It poses a significant threat to forests and the environment.

Impact: Illegal logging results in deforestation, habitat destruction, and loss of biodiversity. It also deprives governments of revenue and undermines legal and sustainable logging practices.

Responses: Various countries have implemented measures to combat illegal logging, including stricter enforcement, monitoring, and international agreements. Consumers can look for certifications like FSC to support legal and sustainable timber products.[28]

Conflict timber

  Issue: Conflict timber, sometimes called "blood timber," is sourced from regions experiencing armed conflicts or human rights abuses. The sale of such timber can finance conflict and perpetuate violence.

 Impact: The sale of conflict timber perpetuates instability in conflict-affected regions, contributes to human rights abuses, and undermines legitimate governments and their institutions.

Responses: International efforts, such as the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme for rough diamonds, aim to prevent the trade in conflict resources, but their effectiveness is debated. Advocacy and consumer awareness play a role in addressing this issue.[28]

Protests and activism

   Issue: Protests and activism often arise in response to specific logging operations deemed harmful to the environment or local communities. Activists may engage in civil disobedience or legal actions to halt or change these operations.

  Impact: Protests can raise awareness about logging-related issues, lead to legal challenges, and sometimes influence corporate and government policies. However, they can also result in conflicts and legal disputes.

 Responses: Many protests have led to changes in logging practices, concessions from logging companies, and increased scrutiny of operations. Some companies have adopted more sustainable practices in response to public pressure.[28]

Clear-cutting controversy

   Issue: Clear-cutting, a method of logging that removes all trees in a designated area, is widely criticized for its environmental impact. It can lead to habitat loss, soil erosion, and deforestation.

  Impact: Clear-cutting can cause significant environmental harm and disrupt ecosystems. It is often met with public resistance and regulatory scrutiny.

 Responses: To address the controversy, some logging companies have adopted more selective and sustainable logging practices, while governments have imposed restrictions and required reforestation efforts.[28]

Indigenous rights and land disputes

   Issue: Logging activities can lead to land rights disputes and conflicts with indigenous communities. Many indigenous groups see logging as a threat to their traditional lands and ways of life.

 Impact: Indigenous land rights are often violated, leading to displacement and cultural loss. Conflicts between logging companies, governments, and indigenous communities can escalate.

Responses: Legal frameworks and international agreements, such as the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, aim to protect indigenous rights. Collaboration and consultation with indigenous communities are increasingly seen as essential to resolving these disputes.[28]

These logging controversies highlight the complex and multifaceted nature of the industry. Balancing economic interests, environmental conservation, and social responsibility remains a global challenge, necessitating ongoing dialogue, cooperation, and ethical practices in the logging sector.

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Society of American Foresters, 1998. Dictionary of Forestry. Archived 2011-07-25 at the Wayback Machine
  2. 1 2 Keifer, Matthew; Casanova, Vanessa; Garland, John; Smidt, Mathew; Struttmann, Tim (2019-04-03). "Foreword by the Editor-in-Chief and Guest Editors". Journal of Agromedicine. 24 (2): 119–120. doi:10.1080/1059924X.2019.1596697. ISSN 1059-924X. PMID 30890041. S2CID 150081506.
  3. ↑ 'Logging emits three times as much carbon dioxide into the atmosphere per acre as wildfire alone. Most of the tree parts unusable for lumber – the branches, tops, bark and sawdust from milling – are burned for energy, sending large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere. In contrast, wildfire releases a surprisingly small amount of the carbon in trees, less than 2 percent. Logging in U.S. forests is now responsible for as much annual greenhouse gas emissions as burning coal.' Chad Hanson, Michael Dorsey, 'The Case Against Commercial Logging in Wildfire-Prone Forests,' New York Times 30 July 2022.
  4. ↑ Illegal Logging.Info
  5. ↑ Virginia Tech: Dealing with Timber Theft Archived 2008-10-17 at the Wayback Machine
  6. ↑ msnbc.com – Guilty pleas in cedar tree theft September 23, 2008
  7. 1 2 Putz, Francis E.; Dykstra, Dennis P.; Heinrich, Rudolf (2000). "Why Poor Logging Practices Persist in the Tropics". Conservation Biology. 14 (4): 951–956. Bibcode:2000ConBi..14..951P. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99137.x. ISSN 0888-8892. JSTOR 2641994. S2CID 40156577.
  8. 1 2 "Environmental hazards from logging". The Encyclopedia of World Probems & Human Potential. 2020-10-04.
  9. ↑ Forest Matters: Just Say No to High Grading page 8 Archived September 26, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  10. ↑ "Triton Logging". Archived from the original on 2011-02-08. Retrieved 2011-04-25.
  11. ↑ Weatherspoon, C. Phillip. "Fire-Silviculture Relationships in Sierra Forests" (PDF). Redding, California: United States Forest Service. pp. 1167–1176. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 26, 2006.
  12. ↑ "Wanted An-Inventor!" Popular Mechanics Monthly, July 1930, pp. 66–70, see p. 67 middle photo
  13. ↑ "Huge Logging Tractor Moves on Wheels 24 Feet High." Popular Science, June 1960, pp. 96–98.
  14. ↑ Helicopter logging or Heli-logging Archived 2009-06-04 at the Wayback Machine, Forestry.com
  15. ↑ Animal logging in the US South and its application in the developing countries, FAO
  16. ↑ "CDC – NORA Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Sector Council". www.cdc.gov. 2019-02-10. Retrieved 2019-03-14.
  17. ↑ "NIOSH Logging Safety". United States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 2010-04-19.
  18. ↑ Weichelt, Bryan; Gorucu, Serap (2018-02-17). "Supplemental surveillance: a review of 2015 and 2016 agricultural injury data from news reports on AgInjuryNews.org". Injury Prevention. 25 (3): injuryprev–2017–042671. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2017-042671. ISSN 1353-8047. PMID 29386372. S2CID 3371442.
  19. ↑ Rodriguez, Anabel; Casanova, Vanessa; Levin, Jeffrey L.; Porras, David Gimeno Ruiz de; Douphrate, David I. (2019-04-03). "Work-Related Musculoskeletal Symptoms among Loggers in the Ark-La-Tex Region". Journal of Agromedicine. 24 (2): 167–176. doi:10.1080/1059924X.2019.1567423. ISSN 1059-924X. PMC 7008449. PMID 30624156.
  20. ↑ BC Forest Safety Council
  21. ↑ "Forestry: Guide to Managing Risks of Timber Harvesting Operations". Trove. Retrieved 2023-04-20.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 academic.oup.com https://academic.oup.com/jof/article-. Retrieved 2023-10-22. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Karsenty, Alain; Gourlet-Fleury, Sylvie (2006). "Assessing Sustainability of Logging Practices in the Congo Basin's Managed Forests: the Issue of Commercial Species Recovery". Ecology and Society. 11 (1). doi:10.5751/ES-01668-110126. hdl:10535/2939. ISSN 1708-3087. JSTOR 26267810.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Maican, Ovidiu Horia (2022). "REGULATIONS REGARDING ILLEGAL LOGGING". Perspectives of Law and Public Administration. 11 (2): 333–342. ISSN 2601-7830.
  25. 1 2 3 4 "Gale - Institution Finder". galeapps.gale.com. Retrieved 2023-10-22.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Reboredo, Fernando (2013-06-01). "Socio-economic, environmental, and governance impacts of illegal logging". Environment Systems and Decisions. 33 (2): 295–304. Bibcode:2013EnvSD..33..295R. doi:10.1007/s10669-013-9444-7. ISSN 2194-5411. S2CID 167600711.
  27. 1 2 "Google Books". books.google.com.ng. Retrieved 2023-10-22.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "ScienceDirect.com | Science, health and medical journals, full text articles and books". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2023-10-22.

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