Stephen Lippard
Lippard in 2017
Born
Stephen James Lippard

(1940-10-12) October 12, 1940[1]
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.
NationalityAmerican
Alma materHaverford College (B.S.) (1962)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Ph.D) (1965)
AwardsWilliam H. Nichols Medal (1995)
National Medal of Science (2004)
Linus Pauling Award (2009)
Priestley Medal (2014)
Welch Award in Chemistry (2016)
American Institute of Chemists Gold Medal (2017)
Scientific career
Fields
Institutions
Doctoral advisorF. Albert Cotton
Doctoral students
Other notable studentsChristopher Chang (postdoc), Christine S. Chow (postdoc), Jack R. Norton (postdoc), JoAnne Stubbe (postdoc), William B. Tolman (postdoc)
Websitelippardlab.mit.edu
External videos
video icon "Stephen J. Lippard, Ph.D., 2015 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Chemistry", Franklin Institute
video icon "Prof. Stephen J. Lippard receives highest honors, 2014 Priestley Medal", American Chemical Society

Stephen James Lippard (born October 12, 1940) is the Arthur Amos Noyes Emeritus Professor of Chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is considered one of the founders of bioinorganic chemistry,[2] studying the interactions of nonliving substances such as metals with biological systems.[3] He is also considered a founder of metalloneurochemistry, the study of metal ions and their effects in the brain and nervous system.[4] He has done pioneering work in understanding protein structure and synthesis, the enzymatic functions of methane monooxygenase (MMO), and the mechanisms of cisplatin anticancer drugs.[3] His work has applications for the treatment of cancer,[4] for bioremediation of the environment,[5] and for the development of synthetic methanol-based fuels.[3]

Education

Lippard was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where he graduated from Taylor Allderdice High School in 1958. He earned his bachelor's degree from Haverford College in 1962.[1] Originally interested in attending medical school, a talk on medicinal chemistry by visiting chemist Francis P.J. Dwyer inspired Lippard to focus on inorganic chemistry for his Ph.D.[3] Lippard worked with F. Albert Cotton at MIT on rhenium oxo complexes and clusters. He completed the thesis Chemistry of the bromorhenates, receiving his Ph.D. from MIT in 1965.[1][6][2][7]

Career

Lippard joined the faculty of Columbia University in 1966 as an assistant professor. He was promoted to associate professor with tenure in 1969 and full Professor in 1972.[8]

In 1983, Lippard returned to MIT as a professor of chemistry.[8] He has held the Arthur Amos Noyes Professorship of Chemistry at MIT since 1989.[9] He and his wife Judy were housemasters at MIT's MacGregor House from 1991 to 1995.[10] Lippard served as the head of the MIT chemistry department from 1995 to 2005.[1] He is recognized for his scientific work and for his work with students, having mentored more than 100 PhDs.[11][2][12] His students are active in a wide range of areas, in part because "He delivers a strong message that you need to go to the frontier of science and pick interesting problems."[2] Forty percent of his graduate students have been women, who he gives "high-risk, high-reward projects".[2]

Lippard has co-authored over 900 scholarly and professional articles,[1] and co-authored the textbook Principles of Bioinorganic Chemistry (1994) with Jeremy Berg.[13] He edited the book series Progress in Inorganic Chemistry from Volume 11 to 40.[14] He was an Associate Editor of the journal Inorganic Chemistry from 1983 to 1989,[2] and an Associate Editor of the Journal of the American Chemical Society from 1989 to 2013,[2][1] as well as serving on the editorial boards of numerous other journals.[8]

Research

Lippard's research activities are at the interface of biology and inorganic chemistry. Lippard focuses on understanding the physical and structural properties of metal complexes, their synthesis and reactions, and the involvement of metal ions in biological systems.[15][16][17] The formation and breaking of molecular bonds underlie many biochemical transformations. Purely inorganic substances such as iron are often required in essential organic reactions, e.g. oxygen binding in the hemoglobin family. Lippard attempts to better understand the role of metal complexes in the physiology and pathology of existing biological systems, and to identify possible applications of metal ions in medical treatment.[16]

He has made major contributions in a number of areas, including the development of platinum-based anticancer drugs such as the cisplatin family.[18] Another area of interest is the structure and function of methane and enzymes that consume greenhouse gas hydrocarbons.[19] In metalloneurochemistry, he studies the molecular activity of metal ions in the brain and develops optical and MRI sensors for binding, tracking, and measuring metal ions as they interact with neurotransmitters and other biological signaling agents.[20][21]

Cisplatin

Cisplatin

Cisplatin is one of the most frequently used chemotherapy medications for many forms of cancer. It was discovered in the 1960s by Barnett Rosenberg, but its mechanism of action was not understood.[22][23]

Early work in Lippard's lab on the interaction of metal complexes with nucleic acids led to the discovery of the first metallo-intercalators and eventually to the understanding of the mechanisms of cisplatin. Lippard and his students examined sequences of DNA and RNA and incorporated sulfur atoms into the sugar-phosphate backbone, where they selectively bound mercury or platinum complexes to specific positions. Karen Jennette's discovery that sterically encumbered platinum complexes were more successful in binding to sulfur atoms in tRNA than mercury salts led researchers to propose that the platinum complexes intercalated between the double-stranded RNA's base pairs.[24] It was the first experimental demonstration to show a metal complex binding to DNA by intercalation: platinum terpyridine complexes inserted between the DNA base pairs and unwound the double helix.[25] Using fiber X-ray diffraction, Peter Bond and others were able to display the intercalated platinum complex and to confirm predictions that the spacing of intercalators in DNA base pairs would follow the neighbor exclusion rule.[24][26][27]

This established the groundwork for subsequent work on intercalative binding.[25] Jacqueline Barton and others have used electron micrography to show that the covalent binding of platinum complexes changes the supercoiling of the DNA, "bending and unwinding" the double helix. [18][28][29] Further experiments have explored the mechanisms through which platinum drugs bind their biological targets and led to insights into their anticancer activity. Important results include the identification of an intrastrand d(pGpG) cross-link as the major adduct on platinated single-stranded DNA,[30] identification of the major adduct on double-stranded DNA, the binding of high-mobility-group proteins to platinated DNA cross-links.[24][21] Using X-ray crystallography and other techniques, Lippard and his coworkers have examined the mechanisms involved in binding cisplatin to DNA fragments, to better understand how cisplatin invades tumor cells and interferes with their activity.[3] The interaction of Cisplatin and DNA results in the formation of DNA-DNA interstrand and intrastrand crosslinks which block DNA replication and transcription mechanisms.[22] As well as the intrastrand cross links created by cisplatin, monofunctional metal complexes may suggest possible cancer treatments.[31][32]

A related line of research in Lippard's laboratory involves platinum blues. Jacqueline Barton was the first person to synthesize and structurally characterize a crystalline platinum blue, pyridone blue. Since then, extensive research has been done on the structure, properties, and reactions of such complexes.[24][33][34]

Methane monooxygenases

Particulate methane monooxygenase

Members of the Lippard laboratory studying macromolecular crystallography have explored the structure, mechanisms and activity of bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases.[21][35] Methane monooxygenases are enzymes that occur in bacteria called methanotrophs. The primary function of this enzyme is the hydroxylation of methane to methanol as the first step in methane metabolism.

Amy Rosenzweig determined the protein x-ray structure of the soluble form of methane monooxygenase (MMO) as Lippard's graduate student.[2][36] Lippard has used X-ray diffraction and a variety of other methods to study such compounds, greatly expanding our understanding of their structure and function. MMO is vital to Earth's carbon cycle, and knowledge of its structure may help to develop clean technologies for methanol-based fuels.[3] Methane monoxygenases may also be useful for bioremediation.[5]

Iron complexes

Lippard and his students have also studied the synthesis of diiron complexes such as diiron hydroxylase to better understand the activities of metal atoms in biological molecules. They have developed model compounds for carboxylate-bridged diiron metalloenzymes which can be compared with corresponding biological forms. They have synthesized analogues of the diiron carboxylate cores of MMO and related carboxylate-bridged diiron proteins such as the dioxygen transporter hemerythrin.[37][21][38] In 2010, Lippard received the Ronald Breslow Award for his work on nonheme iron proteins.[39]

Also exciting was the synthesis of a "molecular ferric wheel" by Kingsley Taft, the first wheel structure to be observed in self-assembled polymetallic chemistry.[40][41][42] [43] A nearly perfect circle containing ten ferric ions, the structure spontaneously assembled in methanolic solutions of diiron(III) oxo complexes, which were being studied to better understand polyiron oxo protein cores like those of hemerythrin.[40][44] Although no particular use is known for the ferric wheel, it and subsequent ring-shaped homometallic molecular clusters are of interest as a subclass of molecular magnets.[45] Another novel complex was a "ferric triple-decker", containing three parallel triangular iron units and a triple bridge of six citrate ligands.[46]

Metalloneurochemistry

Lippard is considered a founder of metalloneurochemistry,[4] the study of metal ions at the molecular level as they affect the brain and the nervous system.[47] Working at the interface of inorganic chemistry and neuroscience, he has devised fluorescent imaging agents for studying mobile zinc and nitric oxide and their effects on neurotransmission and other forms of biological signaling.[48][49][21]

Companies

In 2011 Lippard founded Blend Therapeutics with Omid Cameron Farokhzad and Robert Langer, in Watertown, Massachusetts.[50] Blend focused on developing anti-cancer medicines for treatment of solid tumor cancers,[51] with the goal of targeting cancerous tissue and leaving healthy cells alone.[52] Its proprietary drug candidates included BTP-114, a cisplatin prodrug, and BTP-277, a targeting ligand designed to bond selectively to tumor cells.[51][52] As of 2016, Blend split off into two separate companies: Tarveda and Placon, to follow these two approaches.[53]

Placon Therapeutics is developing platinum-based cancer therapies. These include BTP-114, the first clinical candidate to use an albumin-conjugating, platinum-prodrug platform, based on Lippard's work. BTP-114 has been cleared for Phase 1 cancer-treatment clinical trials by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).[54]

Tarveda Therapeutics is developing BTP-277 (renamed PEN-221) and other Pentarins, a proprietary class of therapeutics which use peptide ligands to carry a target drug to tumor cells.[53] Pentarins are nanoparticle drugs, similar to antibody-drug conjugates but smaller, that have been described as "mini-smart bombs". They are believed to be capable of penetrating dense tumor-based cancers.[52]

Honors and awards

Lippard has been elected to the National Academy of Sciences, the National Institute of Medicine, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,[8] and the American Philosophical Society.[55] He is an honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy (2002),[56] the Italian Chemical Society (1996), and the German National Academy of Sciences (Leopoldina) (2004), and is an external scientific member of the Max-Planck Institute (1996) in Germany.[57]

He has received honorary Doctorate of Science degrees from Haverford College,[58] Texas A&M University,[59] and the University of South Carolina,[60] and an honorary Doctorate degree from Hebrew University of Jerusalem.[61]

Lippard has received many awards throughout his career,[8] most notably the 2004 National Medal of Science, the 2014 Priestley Medal of the American Chemical Society, its highest award,[62] and the 2014 James R. Killian lectureship at MIT, given to one faculty member of the Institute per year.[12] He is also the recipient of the Linus Pauling Medal,[63] Theodore W. Richards Medal,[64] and the William H. Nichols Medal.[65] For his work in bioinorganic and biomimetic chemistry, Lippard received the Ronald Breslow Award[66] and the Alfred Bader Award[67] from the American Chemical Society (ACS). For research in inorganic and organometallic chemistry, as well as his role as an educator, he was honored with ACS awards for Inorganic Chemistry[68] and for Distinguished Service in Inorganic Chemistry.[69] In 2015, Lippard won the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Chemistry bestowed by The Franklin Institute.[70] In 2016, he received the F. A. Cotton Medal for excellence in chemical research[71][72] and the Welch Award in Chemistry from the Robert A. Welch Foundation.[73] In 2017, he was chosen to receive the American Institute of Chemists Gold Medal.[74]

Personal life

Stephen Lippard married Judith Ann Drezner in 1964.[75] They have two sons, Josh and Alex, a daughter-in-law Sandra, and twin granddaughters, Lucy and Annie.[11] Judy Lippard died on September 9, 2013.[75] Stephen moved to Washington, DC, in 2017, where he remains active in science, writing, consulting, and grandfathering, while expanding his harpsichord playing and cooking skills.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Stephen J. Lippard". Lippard Research Group. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Halford, Bethany (17 March 2014). "Trailblazer And Mentor". Chemical & Engineering News. 92 (11). Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Stephen J. Lippard". The Franklin Institute. 27 October 2014. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
  4. 1 2 3 "'Metals for Life' Symposium to honor 2015 Benjamin Franklin Laureate in Chemistry". University of Delaware. 10 April 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  5. 1 2 Koukkou, Anna-Irini (2011). Microbial bioremediation of non-metals : current research. Norfolk: Caister Academic Press. pp. 217–232. ISBN 9781904455837. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  6. ↑ "Stephen James Lippard". Chemistry Tree. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
  7. ↑ Morrissey, Susan (26 February 2007). "F. Albert Cotton Dies". Chemical & Engineering News. 85 Issue (9): 11.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 "Biography" (PDF). The Nucleus. LXXX (7): 4, 6. March 2002.
  9. ↑ "Curriculum Vitae Professor Dr. Stephen J. Lippard" (PDF). Leopoldina. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
  10. ↑ Lane, Jennifer (10 March 1995). "MacGregor, Burton Housmasters to Leave". The Tech. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  11. 1 2 "American Chemical Society's highest honor goes to Stephen J. Lippard, Ph.D." American Chemical Society. Retrieved 10 June 2013.
  12. 1 2 Trafton, Anne (16 May 2013). "Stephen Lippard wins faculty's Killian Award". MIT Department of Chemistry. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  13. ↑ Lippard, Stephen J.; Berg, Jeremy M., eds. (1994). Principles of bioinorganic chemistry. Mill Valley, Calif.: University Science Books. ISBN 978-0935702729.
  14. ↑ Karlin, Kenneth D, ed. (2007). Progress in Inorganic Chemistry (Series). Vol. 55. doi:10.1002/SERIES2229. ISBN 9780470144428.
  15. ↑ "MIT's Lippard to Present Allergan Distinguished Lecture March 23". Inside CSULB. 15 March 2011.
  16. 1 2 Lippard, Stephen J. (1994). "Metals in Medicine" (PDF). In Bertini, Ivano; Gray, Harry B.; Lippard, Stephen J.; Valentine, Joan Selverstone (eds.). Bioinorganic chemistry. Mill Valley, Calif.: Univ. Science Books. pp. 505–583. ISBN 978-0-935702-57-6. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
  17. ↑ Lippard, Stephen J. (October 2006). "The inorganic side of chemical biology". Nature Chemical Biology. 2 (10): 504–507. doi:10.1038/nchembio1006-504. PMID 16983380. S2CID 45014853.
  18. 1 2 Johnstone, Timothy C.; Suntharalingam, Kogularamanan; Lippard, Stephen J. (9 March 2016). "The Next Generation of Platinum Drugs: Targeted Pt(II) Agents, Nanoparticle Delivery, and Pt(IV) Prodrugs". Chemical Reviews. 116 (5): 3436–3486. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00597. PMC 4792284. PMID 26865551.
  19. ↑ Wang, Weixue; Iacob, Roxana E.; Luoh, Rebecca P.; Engen, John R.; Lippard, Stephen J. (9 July 2014). "Electron Transfer Control in Soluble Methane Monooxygenase". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 136 (27): 9754–9762. doi:10.1021/ja504688z. PMC 4105053. PMID 24937475.
  20. ↑ Lippard, Stephen J. "Investigation of Zinc Neurochemistry by Optical Sensing and MRI". Grantome. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 "MIT Chemistry Directory Stephen J. Lippard Arthur Amos Noyes Professor". MIT Chemistry. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
  22. 1 2 Brown, J. M.; Mehta, M.P.; Nieder, Carsten (2006). Multimodal concepts for integration of cytotoxic drugs with 73 tables. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 9783540256557. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
  23. ↑ Rosenberg, B.; Van Camp, L.; Krigas, T. (1965). "Inhibition of Cell Division in Escherichia coli by Electrolysis Products from a Platinum Electrode". Nature. 205 (4972): 698–9. Bibcode:1965Natur.205..698R. doi:10.1038/205698a0. PMID 14287410. S2CID 9543916.
  24. 1 2 3 4 Lippard, Stephen J. (17 March 2014). "The Life Of A Professor". Chemical & Engineering News. 92 (11): 14–18. doi:10.1021/cen-09211-cover2. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
  25. 1 2 Lippard, Stephen J. (1991). "Platinum DNA Chemistry". In Howell, Stephen B. (ed.). Platinum and other metal coordination compounds in cancer chemotherapy. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 1–12. ISBN 9780306440274. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
  26. ↑ Jennette, KW; Lippard, SJ; Vassiliades, GA; Bauer, WR (October 1974). "Metallointercalation reagents. 2-hydroxyethanethiolato(2,2',2'-terpyridine)-platinum(II) monocation binds strongly to DNA by intercalation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 71 (10): 3839–43. Bibcode:1974PNAS...71.3839J. doi:10.1073/pnas.71.10.3839. PMC 434279. PMID 4530265.
  27. ↑ Bond, PJ; Langridge, R; Jennette, KW; Lippard, SJ (December 1975). "X-ray fiber diffraction evidence for neighbor exclusion binding of a platinum metallointercalation reagent to DNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 72 (12): 4825–9. Bibcode:1975PNAS...72.4825B. doi:10.1073/pnas.72.12.4825. PMC 388824. PMID 1061071.
  28. ↑ Cohen, GL; Bauer, WR; Barton, JK; Lippard, SJ (9 March 1979). "Binding of cis- and trans-dichlorodiammineplatinum(II) to DNA: evidence for unwinding and shortening of the double helix". Science. 203 (4384): 1014–6. Bibcode:1979Sci...203.1014C. doi:10.1126/science.370979. PMID 370979.
  29. ↑ Zeglis, Brian M.; Pierre, Valerie C.; Barton, Jacqueline K. (2007). "Metallo-intercalators and metallo-insertors" (PDF). Chemical Communications (44): 4565–79. doi:10.1039/b710949k. PMC 2790054. PMID 17989802.
  30. ↑ Sherman, Suzanne E.; Lippard, Stephen J. (October 1987). "Structural aspects of platinum anticancer drug interactions with DNA". Chemical Reviews. 87 (5): 1153–1181. doi:10.1021/cr00081a013.
  31. ↑ Zhang, Christiana Xin; Lippard, Stephen J (August 2003). "New metal complexes as potential therapeutics". Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 7 (4): 481–489. doi:10.1016/S1367-5931(03)00081-4. PMID 12941423.
  32. ↑ Park, Ga Young; Wilson, Justin J.; Song, Ying; Lippard, Stephen J. (24 July 2012). "Phenanthriplatin, a monofunctional DNA-binding platinum anticancer drug candidate with unusual potency and cellular activity profile". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (30): 11987–11992. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10911987P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1207670109. PMC 3409760. PMID 22773807.
  33. ↑ Matsumoto, Kazuko (1999). "Inorganic and organometallic chemistry of cisplatin-derived diplatinum(III) complexes". In Lippert, Bernhard (ed.). Cisplatin : chemistry and biochemistry of a leading anticancer drug. Zürich: Verlag Helvetica Chimica Acta. pp. 456–458. ISBN 9783906390208. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
  34. ↑ Barton, J. K.; Rabinowitz, H. N.; Szalda, D. J.; Lippard, S. J. (April 1977). "Synthesis and crystal structure of cis-diammineplatinum .alpha.-pyridone blue". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 99 (8): 2827–2829. doi:10.1021/ja00450a085.
  35. ↑ Tinberg, Christine E.; Lippard, Stephen J. (19 April 2011). "Dioxygen Activation in Soluble Methane Monooxygenase". Accounts of Chemical Research. 44 (4): 280–288. doi:10.1021/ar1001473. PMC 3079780. PMID 21391602.
  36. ↑ Rosenzweig, Amy C.; Frederick, Christin A.; Lippard, Stephen J.; Nordlund, Pär (9 December 1993). "Crystal structure of a bacterial non-haem iron hydroxylase that catalyses the biological oxidation of methane". Nature. 366 (6455): 537–543. Bibcode:1993Natur.366..537R. doi:10.1038/366537a0. PMID 8255292. S2CID 4237249.
  37. ↑ Que, Lawrence; True, Anne E. (1990). Dinuclear Iron- and Manganese-Oxo Sites in Biology. Progress in Inorganic Chemistry. Vol. 38. pp. 97–200. doi:10.1002/9780470166390.ch3. ISBN 9780470166963. Retrieved 24 March 2017. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  38. ↑ Friesner, R. A.; Baik, M.-H.; Gherman, B. F.; Guallar, V.; Wirstam, M.; Murphy, R. B.; Lippard, S. J. (2003). "How iron-containing proteins control dioxygen chemistry: a detailed atomic level description via accurate quantum chemical and mixed quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics calculations". Coord. Chem. Rev. 238–239: 267–290. doi:10.1016/S0010-8545(02)00284-9.
  39. ↑ Baum, Rudy M. (15 February 2010). "Ronald Breslow Award For Achievement In Biomimetic Chemistry Sponsored by the Ronald Breslow Award Endowment". Chemical & Engineering News. 88 (7): 61. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  40. 1 2 Baum, Rudy (24 December 1990). ""Ferric wheel" molecule characterized at MIT". Chemical & Engineering News. 68 (52): 22. doi:10.1021/cen-v068n052.p022.
  41. ↑ Kovac, Jeffrey; Weisberg, Michael, eds. (2012). Roald Hoffmann on the philosophy, art, and science of chemistry. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 133–137. ISBN 978-0199755905. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  42. ↑ Taft, Kingsley L.; Lippard, Stephen J. (December 1990). "Synthesis and structure of [Fe(OMe)2(O2CCH2Cl)]10: a molecular ferric wheel". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 112 (26): 9629–9630. doi:10.1021/ja00182a027.
  43. ↑ Taft, Kingsley L.; Delfs, Christopher D.; Papaefthymiou, Georgia C.; Foner, Simon; Gatteschi, Dante; Lippard, Stephen J. (February 1994). "[Fe(OMe)2(O2CCH2Cl)]10, a Molecular Ferric Wheel". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 116 (3): 823–832. doi:10.1021/ja00082a001.
  44. ↑ Stover, Dawn (May 1991). "Science Newsfront: Ferric Wheel". Popular Science. p. 21. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  45. ↑ Winpenny, Richard (2012). Molecular cluster magnets. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing. pp. 192–193. ISBN 978-9814322942. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  46. ↑ Bino, Avi; Shweky, Itzhak; Cohen, Shmuel; Bauminger, Erika R.; Lippard, Stephen J. (October 1998). "A Novel Nonairon(III) Citrate Complex: A "Ferric Triple-Decker"". Inorganic Chemistry. 37 (20): 5168–5172. doi:10.1021/ic9715658.
  47. ↑ Burdette, S. C.; Lippard, S. J. (24 March 2003). "Meeting of the minds: Metalloneurochemistry". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (7): 3605–3610. doi:10.1073/pnas.0637711100. PMC 152969. PMID 12655069.
  48. ↑ Dean, Kevin M.; Qin, Yan; Palmer, Amy E. (September 2012). "Visualizing metal ions in cells: An overview of analytical techniques, approaches, and probes". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research. 1823 (9): 1406–1415. doi:10.1016/j.bbamcr.2012.04.001. PMC 3408866. PMID 22521452.
  49. ↑ Goldberg, Jacob M.; Loas, Andrei; Lippard, Stephen J. (October 2016). "Metalloneurochemistry and the Pierian Spring: 'Shallow Draughts Intoxicate the Brain'". Israel Journal of Chemistry. 56 (9–10): 791–802. doi:10.1002/ijch.201600034. PMC 5300766. PMID 28190893.
  50. ↑ Tomczyk, Michael (2012). Nanoinnovation : What Every Manager Needs to Know. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, John. ISBN 978-3527326723. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  51. 1 2 Morris, Kathryn (21 April 2015). "BTP-277 has evolved to become PEN-221, embodying the miniaturized biologic drug conjugate targeting the somatostatin receptor, but no longer encapsulated in a nanoparticle". Tarveda. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  52. 1 2 3 Fidler, Ben (7 January 2015). "With $21M, Retooled Blend Whips up Mini-Smart Bombs For Cancer". Xconomy. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  53. 1 2 Fidler, Ben (27 January 2016). "Blend Rebrands as Tarveda, Raises $38M, and Spins Out Cancer Drug". Xconomy. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  54. ↑ "Placon Therapeutics launches, BTP-114 IND accepted by FDA". CenterWatch. 23 March 2016. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  55. ↑ "Four MIT professors elected to the American Philosophical Society". MIT News. 14 May 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
  56. ↑ "Stephen J. Lippard". Royal Irish Academy. 19 October 2015. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
  57. ↑ "Our roots". MPI für Chemische Energiekonversion. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  58. ↑ "As Part Of Its Major Campaign Kick-Off, Haverford College Honors Leaders In Business, Medicine, Higher Education And Community Service". Haverford College. 3 December 2000. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
  59. ↑ "MIT Reports to the President 1994-95". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
  60. ↑ "Bernanke, Robinson to address graduates". University of South Carolina. 1 February 2010. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
  61. ↑ "Lippard Awarded Honorary Doctorate from The Hebrew University of Jerusalem". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 13 June 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
  62. ↑ Faiz, Jonathan Faiz (18 March 2014). "Stephen Lippard Awarded the Priestley Medal". ChemistryViews. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
  63. ↑ "Pauling Award". Portland State University. 7 November 2009. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
  64. ↑ "Theodore William Richards Medal for Conspicuous Achievement in Chemistry Recipients". Northeastern Section of the American Chemical Society. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  65. ↑ "Nichols Medalists". New York Section, American Chemical Society. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  66. ↑ "Ronald Breslow Award for Achievement in Biomimetic Chemistry". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  67. ↑ "Alfred Bader Award in Bioinorganic or Bioorganic Chemistry". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
  68. ↑ "ACS Award in Inorganic Chemistry". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  69. ↑ "ACS Award for Distinguished Service in the Advancement of lnorganic Chemistry". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  70. ↑ "Stephen J. Lippard". 27 October 2014.
  71. ↑ "MIT Chemist Stephen Lippard to Receive 2016 Cotton Medal". Science Texas A&M University. 18 February 2016.
  72. ↑ Wang, Linda (9 May 2016). "Stephen Lippard named Cotton Medalist". Chemical & Engineering News. 94 Issue (19): 36. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2016.04.041.
  73. ↑ "Stephen Lippard wins 2016 Welch Award". MIT News. 13 September 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
  74. ↑ "American Institute of Chemists Gold Medal". Science History Institute. 22 March 2018.
  75. 1 2 "Judith Ann Lippard". Cambridge Day. 9 September 2013. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
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