In pre-modern times

Medieval levies

Under the feudal laws on the European continent, landowners in the medieval period enforced a system whereby all peasants, freemen commoners and noblemen aged 15 to 60 living in the countryside or in urban centers, were summoned for military duty when required by either the king or the local lord, bringing along the weapons and armor according to their wealth. These levies fought as footmen, sergeants, and men at arms under local superiors appointed by the king or the local lord such as the arrière-ban in France. Arrière-ban denoted a general levy, where all able-bodied males age 15 to 60 living in the Kingdom of France were summoned to go to war by the King (or the constable and the marshals). Men were summoned by the bailiff (or the sénéchal in the south). Bailiffs were military and political administrators installed by the King to steward and govern a specific area of a province following the king's commands and orders. The men summoned in this way were then summoned by the lieutenant who was the King's representative and military governor over an entire province comprising many bailiwicks, seneschalties and castellanies. All men from the richest noble to the poorest commoner were summoned under the arrière-ban and they were supposed to present themselves to the King or his officials.^{[7][8][9][10]}

In medieval Scandinavia the leiðangr (Old Norse), leidang (Norwegian), leding, (Danish), ledung (Swedish), lichting (Dutch), expeditio (Latin) or sometimes leþing (Old English), was a levy of free farmers conscripted into coastal fleets for seasonal excursions and in defence of the realm.^[11]

The bulk of the Anglo-Saxon English army, called the fyrd, was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn from the freemen of each county. In the 690s laws of Ine of Wessex, three levels of fines are imposed on different social classes for neglecting military service.^[12]

Some modern writers claim military service in Europe was restricted to the landowning minor nobility. These thegns were the land-holding aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour and weapons for a certain number of days each year. The historian David Sturdy has cautioned about regarding the fyrd as a precursor to a modern national army composed of all ranks of society, describing it as a "ridiculous fantasy":

The persistent old belief that peasants and small farmers gathered to form a national army or fyrd is a strange delusion dreamt up by antiquarians in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries to justify universal military conscription.^[13]

Painting depicting a battle during the Ōnin War

In feudal Japan the shogun decree of 1393 exempted money lenders from religious or military levies, in return for a yearly tax. The Ōnin War weakened the shogun and levies were imposed again on money lenders. This overlordism was arbitrary and unpredictable for commoners. While the money lenders were not poor, several overlords tapped them for income. Levies became necessary for the survival of the overlord, allowing the lord to impose taxes at will. These levies included tansen tax on agricultural land for ceremonial expenses. Yakubu takumai tax was raised on all land to rebuild the Ise Grand Shrine, and munabechisen tax was imposed on all houses. At the time, land in Kyoto was acquired by commoners through usury and in 1422 the shogun threatened to repossess the land of those commoners who failed to pay their levies.^[14]

Military slavery

Ottoman janissaries

The system of military slaves was widely used in the Middle East, beginning with the creation of the corps of Turkic slave-soldiers (ghulams or mamluks) by the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim in the 820s and 830s. The Turkish troops soon came to dominate the government, establishing a pattern throughout the Islamic world of a ruling military class, often separated by ethnicity, culture and even religion by the mass of the population, a paradigm that found its apogee in the Mamluks of Egypt and the Janissary corps of the Ottoman Empire, institutions that survived until the early 19th century.

In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I developed personal troops to be loyal to him, with a slave army called the Kapıkulu. The new force was built by taking Christian children from newly conquered lands, especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system known as the devşirme (translated "gathering" or "converting"). The captive children were forced to convert to Islam. The Sultans had the young boys trained over several years. Those who showed special promise in fighting skills were trained in advanced warrior skills, put into the sultan's personal service, and turned into the Janissaries, the elite branch of the Kapıkulu. A number of distinguished military commanders of the Ottomans, and most of the imperial administrators and upper-level officials of the Empire, such as Pargalı İbrahim Pasha and Sokollu Mehmet Paşa, were recruited in this way.^[15] By 1609, the Sultan's Kapıkulu forces increased to about 100,000.^[16]

In later years, Sultans turned to the Barbary Pirates to supply their Jannissaries corps. Their attacks on ships off the coast of Africa or in the Mediterranean, and subsequent capture of able-bodied men for ransom or sale provided some captives for the Sultan's system. Starting in the 17th century, Christian families living under the Ottoman rule began to submit their sons into the Kapikulu system willingly, as they saw this as a potentially invaluable career opportunity for their children. Eventually the Sultan turned to foreign volunteers from the warrior clans of Circassians in southern Russia to fill his Janissary armies. As a whole the system began to break down, the loyalty of the Jannissaries became increasingly suspect. Mahmud II forcibly disbanded the Janissary corps in 1826.^[17]

Similar to the Janissaries in origin and means of development were the Mamluks of Egypt in the Middle Ages. The Mamluks were usually captive non-Muslim Iranian and Turkish children who had been kidnapped or bought as slaves from the Barbary coasts. The Egyptians assimilated and trained the boys and young men to become Islamic soldiers who served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. The first mamluks served the Abbasid caliphs in 9th-century Baghdad. Over time they became a powerful military caste. On more than one occasion, they seized power, for example, ruling Egypt from 1250 to 1517.

From 1250 Egypt had been ruled by the Bahri dynasty of Kipchak origin. Slaves from the Caucasus served in the army and formed an elite corps of troops. They eventually revolted in Egypt to form the Burgi dynasty. The Mamluks' excellent fighting abilities, massed Islamic armies, and overwhelming numbers succeeded in overcoming the Christian Crusader fortresses in the Holy Land. The Mamluks were the most successful defence against the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia and Iraq from entering Egypt.^[18]

On the western coast of Africa, Berber Muslims captured non-Muslims to put to work as laborers. They generally converted the younger people to Islam and many became quite assimilated. In Morocco, the Berber looked south rather than north. The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail, called "the Bloodthirsty" (1672–1727), employed a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard. He used them to coerce the country into submission.^[19]

In modern times

Painting depicting the Departure of the Conscripts of 1807 by Louis-Léopold Boilly

Modern conscription, the massed military enlistment of national citizens (levée en masse), was devised during the French Revolution, to enable the Republic to defend itself from the attacks of European monarchies. Deputy Jean-Baptiste Jourdan gave its name to the 5 September 1798 Act, whose first article stated: "Any Frenchman is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the nation." It enabled the creation of the Grande Armée, what Napoleon Bonaparte called "the nation in arms", which overwhelmed European professional armies that often numbered only into the low tens of thousands. More than 2.6 million men were inducted into the French military in this way between the years 1800 and 1813.^[20]

The defeat of the Prussian Army in particular shocked the Prussian establishment, which had believed it was invincible after the victories of Frederick the Great. The Prussians were used to relying on superior organization and tactical factors such as order of battle to focus superior troops against inferior ones. Given approximately equivalent forces, as was generally the case with professional armies, these factors showed considerable importance. However, they became considerably less important when the Prussian armies faced Napoleon's forces that outnumbered their own in some cases by more than ten to one. Scharnhorst advocated adopting the levée en masse, the military conscription used by France. The Krümpersystem was the beginning of short-term compulsory service in Prussia, as opposed to the long-term conscription previously used.^[21]

Conscription of Poles to the Russian Army in 1863 (by Aleksander Sochaczewski)

In the Russian Empire, the military service time "owed" by serfs was 25 years at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1834 it was decreased to 20 years. The recruits were to be not younger than 17 and not older than 35.^[22] In 1874 Russia introduced universal conscription in the modern pattern, an innovation only made possible by the abolition of serfdom in 1861. New military law decreed that all male Russian subjects, when they reached the age of 20, were eligible to serve in the military for six years.^[23]

In the decades prior to World War I universal conscription along broadly Prussian lines became the norm for European armies, and those modeled on them. By 1914 the only substantial armies still completely dependent on voluntary enlistment were those of Britain and the United States. Some colonial powers such as France reserved their conscript armies for home service while maintaining professional units for overseas duties.^[24]

World Wars

Young men registering for conscription during World War I, New York City, June 5, 1917

The range of eligible ages for conscripting was expanded to meet national demand during the World Wars. In the United States, the Selective Service System drafted men for World War I initially in an age range from 21 to 30 but expanded its eligibility in 1918 to an age range of 18 to 45.^[25] In the case of a widespread mobilization of forces where service includes homefront defense, ages of conscripts may range much higher, with the oldest conscripts serving in roles requiring lesser mobility.

Expanded-age conscription was common during the Second World War: in Britain, it was commonly known as "call-up" and extended to age 51. Nazi Germany termed it Volkssturm ("People's Storm") and included children as young as 16 and men as old as 60.^[26] During the Second World War, both Britain and the Soviet Union conscripted women. The United States was on the verge of drafting women into the Nurse Corps because it anticipated it would need the extra personnel for its planned invasion of Japan. However, the Japanese surrendered and the idea was abandoned.^[27]

Soviet conscripts in Moscow after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, 1941

During the Great Patriotic War, the Red Army conscripted nearly 30 million men.^[28]

Sexism

Men's rights activists,^[29][30] feminists,^[31][32][33] and opponents of discrimination against men^{[34][35]: 102} have criticized military conscription, or compulsory military service, as sexist. The National Coalition for Men, a men's rights group, sued the US Selective Service System in 2019, leading to it being declared unconstitutional by a US Federal Judge.^[36][37] The federal district judge's opinion was unanimously overturned on appeal to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit.^[38] In September 2021, the House of Representatives passed the annual Defense Authorization Act, which included an amendment that states that "all Americans between the ages of 18 and 25 must register for selective service." This amendment omitted the word "male," which would have extended a potential draft to women; however, the amendment was removed before the National Defense Authorization Act was passed.^[39][40][41]

Feminists have argued, first, that military conscription is sexist because wars serve the interests of what they view as the patriarchy; second, that the military is a sexist institution and that conscripts are therefore indoctrinated into sexism; and third, that conscription of men normalizes violence by men as socially acceptable.^[42][43] Feminists have been organizers and participants in resistance to conscription in several countries.^{[44][45][46][47]}

Conscription has also been criticized on the ground that, historically, only men have been subjected to conscription.^{[35][48][49][50][51]} Men who opt out or are deemed unfit for military service must often perform alternative service, such as Zivildienst in Austria, Germany and Switzerland, or pay extra taxes,^[52] whereas women do not have these obligations. In the US, men who do not register with the Selective Service cannot apply for citizenship, receive federal financial aid, grants or loans, be employed by the federal government, be admitted to public colleges or universities, or, in some states, obtain a driver's license.^[53][54]

Involuntary servitude

Rioters attacking a building during the New York anti-draft riots of 1863

Many American libertarians oppose conscription and call for the abolition of the Selective Service System, arguing that impressment of individuals into the armed forces amounts to involuntary servitude.^[55] For example, Ron Paul, a former U.S. Libertarian Party presidential nominee, has said that conscription "is wrongly associated with patriotism, when it really represents slavery and involuntary servitude".^[56] The philosopher Ayn Rand opposed conscription, opining that "of all the statist violations of individual rights in a mixed economy, the military draft is the worst. It is an abrogation of rights. It negates man's fundamental right—the right to life—and establishes the fundamental principle of statism: that a man's life belongs to the state, and the state may claim it by compelling him to sacrifice it in battle."^[57]

In 1917, a number of radicals and anarchists, including Emma Goldman, challenged the new draft law in federal court, arguing that it was a violation of the Thirteenth Amendment's prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude. However, the Supreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act in the case of Arver v. United States on 7 January 1918, on the ground that the Constitution gives Congress the power to declare war and to raise and support armies. The Court also relied on the principle of the reciprocal rights and duties of citizens. "It may not be doubted that the very conception of a just government in its duty to the citizen includes the reciprocal obligation of the citizen to render military service in case of need and the right to compel."^[58]

Economic

It can be argued that in a cost-to-benefit ratio, conscription during peacetime is not worthwhile.^[59] Months or years of service performed by the most fit and capable subtract from the productivity of the economy; add to this the cost of training them, and in some countries paying them. Compared to these extensive costs, some would argue there is very little benefit; if there ever was a war then conscription and basic training could be completed quickly, and in any case there is little threat of a war in most countries with conscription. In the United States, every male resident is required by law to register with the Selective Service System within 30 days following his 18th birthday and be available for a draft; this is often accomplished automatically by a motor vehicle department during licensing or by voter registration.^[60]

According to Milton Friedman the cost of conscription can be related to the parable of the broken window in anti-draft arguments. The cost of the work, military service, does not disappear even if no salary is paid. The work effort of the conscripts is effectively wasted, as an unwilling workforce is extremely inefficient. The impact is especially severe in wartime, when civilian professionals are forced to fight as amateur soldiers. Not only is the work effort of the conscripts wasted and productivity lost, but professionally skilled conscripts are also difficult to replace in the civilian workforce. Every soldier conscripted in the army is taken away from his civilian work, and away from contributing to the economy which funds the military. This may be less a problem in an agrarian or pre-industrialized state where the level of education is generally low, and where a worker is easily replaced by another. However, this is potentially more costly in a post-industrial society where educational levels are high and where the workforce is sophisticated and a replacement for a conscripted specialist is difficult to find. Even more dire economic consequences result if the professional conscripted as an amateur soldier is killed or maimed for life; his work effort and productivity are lost.^[61]

Political and moral motives

Conscription in Iran

Jean Jacques Rousseau argued vehemently against professional armies since he believed that it was the right and privilege of every citizen to participate to the defense of the whole society and that it was a mark of moral decline to leave the business to professionals. He based his belief upon the development of the Roman Republic, which came to an end at the same time as the Roman Army changed from a conscript to a professional force.^[62] Similarly, Aristotle linked the division of armed service among the populace intimately with the political order of the state.^[63] Niccolò Machiavelli argued strongly for conscription^[64] and saw the professional armies, made up of mercenary units, as the cause of the failure of societal unity in Italy.^[65]

Other proponents, such as William James, consider both mandatory military and national service as ways of instilling maturity in young adults.^[66] Some proponents, such as Jonathan Alter and Mickey Kaus, support a draft in order to reinforce social equality, create social consciousness, break down class divisions and allow young adults to immerse themselves in public enterprise.^[67][68][69] Charles Rangel called for the reinstatement of the draft during the Iraq War not because he seriously expected it to be adopted but to stress how the socioeconomic restratification meant that very few children of upper-class Americans served in the all-volunteer American armed forces.^[70]

Economic and resource efficiency

It is estimated by the British military that in a professional military, a company deployed for active duty in peacekeeping corresponds to three inactive companies at home. Salaries for each are paid from the military budget. In contrast, volunteers from a trained reserve are in their civilian jobs when they are not deployed.^[71]

It was more financially beneficial for less-educated young Portuguese men born in 1967 to participate in conscription than to participate in the highly competitive job market with men of the same age who continued to higher education.^[72]

Table

Conscription by country – Examples

Country	Conscription[106]	Conscription sex
Afghanistan	No (abolished in 1992)	N/A
Albania	No (abolished in 2010)[107]	N/A
Algeria	Yes	Male
Angola	Yes	Male
Argentina	No. Voluntary; conscription may be ordered for specified reasons per Article 19 of Public Law No.24.429 promulgated on 5 January 1995[108]	N/A
Armenia	Yes	Male
Australia (Conscription)	No (abolished by parliament in 1972)[109]	N/A
Austria	Yes (alternative service available)[110]	Male
Azerbaijan	Yes	Male
Bahamas	No	N/A
Bangladesh	No (but can volunteer at Bangladesh Ansar)	N/A
Barbados	No	N/A
Belgium	No (suspended for peacetime in 1992 and went active in 1994)[111]	N/A
Belize	No	N/A
Bhutan	No[112]	N/A
Bolivia	Yes (when annual number of volunteers falls short of goal)[113]	Male and Female
Bosnia and Herzegovina	No (abolished on 1 January 2006)[114]	N/A
Brazil (Conscription)	Yes, but almost all recruits have been volunteers in recent years.[115] (alternative service is foreseen in law,[116] but it is not implemented[115])	Male
Bulgaria	No (abolished by law on 1 January 2008)[117]	N/A
Canada	No (occurred during 1917-1918 and 1940-1945)	N/A
Chile	Yes	Male
China	No (Male citizens 18 years of age and over are required to register for military service in the People's Liberation Army recruiting offices, but the policy is not enforced. Policy exempted in  Hong Kong and  Macao)[118][119][120][121]	N/A
Colombia	Yes	Male
Croatia	No (abolished by law in 2008)[122]	N/A
Cuba	Yes	Male
Cyprus (Conscription)	Yes (alternative service available)	Male
Czech Republic	No (abolished in 2005)[123]	N/A
Denmark (Conscription)	Yes by law, however a great majority of the recruits have been volunteers over the past few years.[124] According to Jyllands Posten, conscription has ended in practice.[125] (alternative service available)[126][127]	Male
Djibouti	No	N/A
Ecuador	No (suspended in 2008)	N/A
Egypt (Conscription)	Yes (alternative service available)	Male
El Salvador	No. Legal, not practiced.	N/A
Eritrea	Yes (18 months by law, but often extended indefinitely)	Male and female
Estonia	Yes (alternative service available)	Male
Eswatini	No	N/A
Finland (Conscription)	Yes (alternative service available)	Male and Female
France	No (suspended for peacetime in 2001)[128]Service national universel (military and civil applications) being instituted as of 2021	Male and female
Gambia	No	N/A
Germany (Conscription)	No (suspended for peacetime by federal legislature effective from 1 July 2011)[129]	Male
Greece (Conscription)	Yes (alternative service available)	Male
Hungary	No (peacetime conscription abolished in 2004)[130]	N/A
India	No	N/A
Indonesia	No (But has a similar system, called PKRS (Pertahanan Keamanan Rakyat Semesta, Universal People's Defense and Security). In the event of war, the government will draft all men and women).[131]	N/A
Ireland	No	N/A
Iran	Yes	Male
Iraq	No (abolished in 2003)	N/A
Israel (Conscription)	Yes	Male and female Jews, male Druze and Circassians, male and female Arab volunteers
Italy	No (suspended for peacetime in 2005)[132]	N/A
Jamaica	No	N/A
Japan	No (abolished in 1945). Enlistment in Japan Self-Defense Forces is voluntary at 18 years of age.[133][134]	N/A
Jordan	Yes (ended in 1992, reinstated in September 2020 for unemployed men.) [135]	Male
North Korea	Yes[136]	Male and female
South Korea	Yes (alternative service available) The military service law was established in 1948.[137]	Male
Kuwait	Yes[138]	Male
Latvia	Yes[139] (abolished in 2007, reintroduced on January 1, 2024)[140]	Male
Lebanon	No (abolished in 2007)[141]	N/A
Libya	Yes	Male
Lithuania	Yes[142] (about 3000 to 4000 conscripts each year must be selected, out of whom up to 10% serve involuntarily[143])	Male
Luxembourg	No	N/A
Malaysia	No,[144] (Malaysian National Service) suspended from January 2015 due to government budget cuts[145] resumed in 2016 then abolished in 2018. However, as of 2023 the government has announced its revival pending approval.	N/A
Maldives	No	N/A
Malta	No	N/A
Mexico	Yes	Male
Republic of Moldova	Yes[146]	N/A
Morocco	Yes (reintroduced in 2018)[147]	Male and female
Mozambique	Yes[148]	Male and female
Myanmar	Sources differ Yes but not enforced as of January 2011.[149][150][151][152][153] No (FWCC[154])	Male and female
Netherlands (Conscription)	No, active conscription suspended in 1997 (except for Curaçao and Aruba)[155]	Male and female
New Zealand	No (abolished in December 1972)	N/A
Nigeria	No. However, under Nigeria's National Youths Service Corps Act, graduates from tertiary institutions are required to undertake national service for a year. The service begins with a 3-week military training.	N/A
North Macedonia	No (abolished in 2006)[156]	N/A
Norway	Yes by law, but in practice people are not forced to serve against their will.[85] Also total objectors have not been punished since 2011, instead they are simply exempted from the service.[157]	Male and female
Pakistan	No	N/A
Philippines (Conscription)	No (abolished in 2016)[154][158][160]	N/A
Poland	No (ended in 2009)[161]	N/A
Portugal	No (Peacetime conscription abolished in 2004 but there remains a symbolic military obligation to all 18-year-old people, from both sexes. It is called National Defense Day, (Dia da Defesa Nacional in Portuguese)).[162]	N/A (symbolic obligation is for both male and female)
Qatar	Yes[163]	Male
Romania	No (stopped in January 2007)	N/A
Russia (Conscription)	Yes (alternative service available)	Male
Rwanda	No	N/A
Saudi Arabia	No	N/A
Serbia (Conscription)	No	N/A
Seychelles	No	N/A
Singapore	Yes	Male
Slovakia	No (abolished on January 1, 2006)[164]	N/A
Slovenia	No[165]	N/A
South Africa	No (ended in 1994, formalized in 2002)[166]	N/A
Spain	No (abolished by law on 31 December 2001)[167]	N/A
Sweden	Yes (abolished 2010, reintroduced 2017) (alternative service available)[168]	Male and female
Switzerland	Yes (alternative service available)[169]	Male
Syria	Yes	Male
Taiwan (Republic of China)	Yes (alternative service available)[170] According to the Defence Minister, from 2018 there will be no compulsory enlistment for military service,[171] however all men born after 1995 have 4 months of compulsory military training, which will increase to 1 year after 2024.[172]	Male
Thailand	Yes, but can be exempted if completed three years of Territorial Defense Student training or picked the black card at the conscription lottery. The government intents to abolish it from 2027. [173]	Male
Tonga	No	N/A
Trinidad and Tobago	No	N/A
Tunisia	Yes	Male and Female
Turkey (Conscription)	Yes[174]	Male
United Arab Emirates	Yes (alternative service available) Implemented in 2014, compulsory for male citizens aged 18–30)[175]	Male
Ukraine	Yes (abolished 2013, reinstated 2014 due to war and ongoing)[176]	Male
United Kingdom (Conscription)	No (occurred from 1916 until 1920 and from 1939 until 31 December 1960, except Bermuda Regiment (abolished in 2018))[177]	N/A
United States (Conscription)	No (abandoned in 1973), but registration is still required among men ages 18–25.[178]	N/A
Vanuatu	No	N/A
Venezuela	Yes[179][180]	Male and female

Austria

Every male citizen of the Republic of Austria from the age of 17 up to 50, specialists up to 65 years is liable to military service. However, besides mobilization, conscription calls to a six-month long basic military training in the Bundesheer can be done up to the age of 35. For men refusing to undergo this training, a nine-month lasting community service is mandatory.

Belgium

Belgium abolished the conscription in 1994. The last conscripts left active service in February 1995. To this day (2019), a small minority of the Belgian citizens supports the idea of reintroducing military conscription, for both men and women.

Bulgaria

Bulgaria had mandatory military service for males above 18 until conscription was ended in 2008.^[181] Due to a shortfall in the army of some 5500 soldiers,^[182] parts of the former ruling coalition have expressed their support for the return of mandatory military service, most notably Krasimir Karakachanov. Opposition towards this idea from the main coalition partner, GERB, saw a compromise in 2018, where instead of mandatory military service, Bulgaria could have possibly introduced a voluntary military service by 2019 where young citizens can volunteer for a period of 6 to 9 months, receiving a basic wage. However this has not gone forward.^[183]

Cambodia

Since the signing of the Peace Accord in 1993, there has been no official conscription in Cambodia. Also the National Assembly has repeatedly rejected to reintroduce it due to popular resentment.^[184] However, in November 2006, it was reintroduced. Although mandatory for all males between the ages of 18 and 30 (with some sources stating up to age 35), less than 20% of those in the age group are recruited amidst a downsizing of the armed forces.^[185]

China

A terracotta soldier with his horse, China, 210–209 BC

Universal conscription in China dates back to the State of Qin, which eventually became the Qin Empire of 221 BC. Following unification, historical records show that a total of 300,000 conscript soldiers and 500,000 conscript labourers constructed the Great Wall of China.^[186] In the following dynasties, universal conscription was abolished and reintroduced on numerous occasions.

As of 2011,^[187] universal military conscription is theoretically mandatory in China, and reinforced by law. However, due to the large population of China and large pool of candidates available for recruitment, the People's Liberation Army has always had sufficient volunteers, so conscription has not been required in practice.^{[188][119][120][189]}

Cuba

Cyprus

Military service in Cyprus has a deep rooted history entangled with the Cyprus problem.^[190] Military service in the Cypriot National Guard is mandatory for all male citizens of the Republic of Cyprus, as well as any male non-citizens born of a parent of Greek Cypriot descent, lasting from the 1 January of the year in which they turn 18 years of age to 31 December, of the year in which they turn 50.^[191][192] All male residents of Cyprus who are of military age (16 and over) are required to obtain an exit visa from the Ministry of Defense.^[193] Currently, military conscription in Cyprus lasts up to 14 months.

Denmark

Conscription duty as Royal Life Guards in Copenhagen

Conscription is known in Denmark since the Viking Age, where one man out of every 10 had to serve the king. Frederick IV of Denmark changed the law in 1710 to every 4th man. The men were chosen by the landowner and it was seen as a penalty.

Since 12 February 1849, every physically fit man must do military service. According to §81 in the Constitution of Denmark, which was promulgated in 1849:

Every male person able to carry arms shall be liable with his person to contribute to the defence of his country under such rules as are laid down by Statute. — Constitution of Denmark^[194]

The legislation about compulsory military service is articulated in the Danish Law of Conscription.^[195] National service takes 4–12 months.^[196] It is possible to postpone the duty when one is still in full-time education.^[197] Every male turning 18 will be drafted to the 'Day of Defence', where they will be introduced to the Danish military and their health will be tested.^[198] Physically unfit persons are not required to do military service.^[196][199] It is only compulsory for men, while women are free to choose to join the Danish army.^[200] Almost all of the men have been volunteers in recent years,^[201] 96.9% of the total number of recruits having been volunteers in the 2015 draft.^[202]

After lottery,^[203] one can become a conscientious objector.^[204] Total objection (refusal from alternative civilian service) results in up to 4 months jailtime according to the law.^[205] However, in 2014 a Danish man, who signed up for the service and objected later, got only 14 days of home arrest.^[206] In many countries the act of desertion (objection after signing up) is punished harder than objecting the compulsory service.

Eritrea

Estonia

Estonia adopted a policy of ajateenistus (literally "time service") in late 1991, having inherited the concept from Soviet legislature. According to §124 of the 1992 constitution, "Estonian citizens have a duty to participate in national defence on the bases and pursuant to a procedure provided by a law",^[212] which in practice means that men aged 18–27 are subject to the draft.^[213]

In the formative years, conscripts had to serve an 18-month term. An amendment passed in 1994 shortened this to 12 months. Further revisions in 2003 established an eleven-month term for draftees trained as NCOs and drivers, and an eight-month term for rank & file. Under the current system, the yearly draft is divided into three "waves" - separate batches of eleven-month conscripts start their service in January and July while those selected for an eight-month term are brought in on October.^[214] An estimated 3200 people go through conscript service every year.

Conscripts serve in all branches of the Estonian Defence Forces except the air force which only relies on paid professionals due to its highly technical nature and security concerns. Historically, draftees could also be assigned to the border guard (before it switched to an all-volunteer model in 2000), a special rapid response unit of the police force (disbanded in 1997) or three militarized rescue companies within the Estonian Rescue Board (disbanded in 2004).

Finland

Finnish conscripts swearing their military oath at the end of their basic training period

Conscription in Finland is part of a general compulsion for national military service for all adult males (Finnish: maanpuolustusvelvollisuus; Swedish: totalförsvarsplikt) defined in the 127§ of the Constitution of Finland.

Conscription can take the form of military or of civilian service. According to Finnish Defence Forces 2011 data slightly under 80% of Finnish males turned 30 had entered and finished the military service. The number of female volunteers to annually enter armed service had stabilised at approximately 300.^[215] The service period is 165, 255 or 347 days for the rank and file conscripts and 347 days for conscripts trained as NCOs or reserve officers. The length of civilian service is always twelve months. Those electing to serve unarmed in duties where unarmed service is possible serve either nine or twelve months, depending on their training.^[216][217]

Any Finnish male citizen who refuses to perform both military and civilian service faces a penalty of 173 days in prison, minus any served days. Such sentences are usually served fully in prison, with no parole.^[218][219] Jehovah's Witnesses are no longer exempted from service as of 27 February 2019.^[220] The inhabitants of demilitarized Åland are exempt from military service. By the Conscription Act of 1951, they are, however, required to serve a time at a local institution, like the coast guard. However, until such service has been arranged, they are freed from service obligation. The non-military service of Åland has not been arranged since the introduction of the act, and there are no plans to institute it. The inhabitants of Åland can also volunteer for military service on the mainland. As of 1995, women are permitted to serve on a voluntary basis and pursue careers in the military after their initial voluntary military service.

The military service takes place in Finnish Defence Forces or in the Finnish Border Guard. All services of the Finnish Defence Forces train conscripts. However, the Border Guard trains conscripts only in land-based units, not in coast guard detachments or in the Border Guard Air Wing. Civilian service may take place in the Civilian Service Center in Lapinjärvi or in an accepted non-profit organization of educational, social or medical nature.

Germany

Between 1956 and 2011 conscription was mandatory for all male citizens in the German federal armed forces (German: Bundeswehr), as well as for the Federal Border Guard (Bundesgrenzschutz) in the 1970s (see Border Guard Service). With the end of the Cold War the German government drastically reduced the size of its armed forces. The low demand for conscripts led to the suspension of compulsory conscription in 2011. Since then, only volunteer professionals serve in the Bundeswehr.

Greece

Evzones of the Presidential Guard in front of the Greek Parliament armed with M1 Garands

Since 1914 Greece has been enforcing mandatory military service, currently lasting 12 months (but historically up to 36 months) for all adult men. Citizens discharged from active service are normally placed in the reserve and are subject to periodic recalls of 1–10 days at irregular intervals.^[221]

Universal conscription was introduced in Greece during the military reforms of 1909, although various forms of selective conscription had been in place earlier. In more recent years, conscription was associated with the state of general mobilisation declared on 20 July 1974, due to the crisis in Cyprus (the mobilisation was formally ended on 18 December 2002).

The duration of military service has historically ranged between 9 and 36 months depending on various factors either particular to the conscript or the political situation in the Eastern Mediterranean. Although women are employed by the Greek army as officers and soldiers, they are not obliged to enlist. Soldiers receive no health insurance, but they are provided with medical support during their army service, including hospitalization costs.

Greece enforces conscription for all male citizens aged between 19 and 45. In August 2009, duration of the mandatory service was reduced from 12 months as it was before to 9 months for the army, but remained at 12 months for the navy and the air force. The number of conscripts allocated to the latter two has been greatly reduced aiming at full professionalization. Nevertheless, mandatory military service at the army was once again raised to 12 months in March 2021, unless served in units in Evros or the North Aegean islands where duration was kept at 9 months. Although full professionalization is under consideration, severe financial difficulties and mismanagement, including delays and reduced rates in the hiring of professional soldiers, as well as widespread abuse of the deferment process, has resulted in the postponement of such a plan.

Iran

Assembling and disassembling gun parts by Iranian soldiers with closed eyes.

In Iran, all men who reach the age of 18 must do about two years of compulsory military service in the IR police department or Iranian army or Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.^[222] Before the 1979 revolution, women could serve in the military.^[223] However, after the establishment of the Islamic Republic, some Ayatollahs considered women's military service to be disrespectful to women by the Pahlavi government and banned women's military service in Iran.^[224] Therefore, Iranian women and girls were completely exempted from military service, which caused Iranian men and boys to oppose.^[225]

In Iran, men who refuse to go to military service are deprived of their citizenship rights, such as employment, health insurance,^[226] continuing their education at university,^[227] finding a job, going abroad, opening a bank account,^[228] etc.^[229] Iranian men have so far opposed mandatory military service and demanded that military service in Iran become a job like in other countries, but the Islamic Republic is opposed to this demand.^[222] Some Iranian military commanders consider the elimination of conscription or improving the condition of soldiers as a security issue and one of Ali Khamenei's powers as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces,^[222][230] so they treat it with caution.^[231] In Iran, usually wealthy people are exempted from conscription.^[232][233] Some other men can be exempted from conscription due to their fathers serving in the Iran-Iraq war.^[234][235]

Israel

There is a mandatory military service for all men and women in Israel who are fit and 18 years old. Men must serve 32 months while women serve 24 months, with the vast majority of conscripts being Jewish.

Some Israeli citizens are exempt from mandatory service:

• Non-Jewish Arab citizens
• permanent residents (non-civilian) such as the Druze of the Golan Heights
• Male Ultra-Orthodox Jews can apply for deferment to study in Yeshiva and the deferment tends to become an exemption, although some do opt to serve in the military
• Female religious Jews, as long as they declare they are unable to serve due to religious grounds. Most of whom opt for the alternative of volunteering in the national service Sherut Leumi

All of the exempt above are eligible to volunteer to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), as long as they declare so.

Male Druze and male Circassian Israeli citizens are liable for conscription, in accordance with agreement set by their community leaders (their community leaders however signed a clause in which all female Druze and female Circassian are exempt from service).

A few male Bedouin Israeli citizens choose to enlist to the Israeli military in every draft (despite their Muslim-Arab background that exempt them from conscription).

South Africa

There was mandatory military conscription for all white men in South Africa from 1968 until the end of apartheid in 1994.^[236] Under South African defense law, young white men had to undergo two years' continuous military training after they leave school, after which they had to serve 720 days in occasional military duty over the next 12 years.^[237] The End Conscription Campaign began in 1983 in opposition to the requirement. In the same year the National Party government announced plans to extend conscription to white immigrants in the country.^[237]

South Korea

Lithuania

Lithuania abolished its conscription in 2008.^[238] In May 2015, the Lithuanian parliament voted to reintroduce conscription and the conscripts started their training in August 2015.^[239] From 2015 to 2017 there were enough volunteers to avoid drafting civilians.^[240]

Luxembourg

Luxembourg practiced military conscription from 1948 until 1967.

Moldova

Moldova, which currently has male conscription, has announced plans to abolish the practice. Moldova's Defense Ministry announced that a plan which stipulates the gradual elimination of military conscription will be implemented starting from the autumn of 2018.^[241]

Netherlands

Conscription, which was called "Service Duty" (Dutch: dienstplicht) in the Netherlands, was first employed in 1810 by French occupying forces. Napoleon's brother Louis Bonaparte, who was King of Holland from 1806 to 1810, had tried to introduce conscription a few years earlier, unsuccessfully. Every man aged 20 years or older had to enlist. By means of drawing lots it was decided who had to undertake service in the French army. It was possible to arrange a substitute against payment.

Later on, conscription was used for all men over the age of 18. Postponement was possible, due to study, for example. Conscientious objectors could perform an alternative civilian service instead of military service. For various reasons, this forced military service was criticized at the end of the twentieth century. Since the Cold War was over, so was the direct threat of a war. Instead, the Dutch army was employed in more and more peacekeeping operations. The complexity and danger of these missions made the use of conscripts controversial. Furthermore, the conscription system was thought to be unfair as only men were drafted.

In the European part of Netherlands, compulsory attendance has been officially suspended since 1 May 1997.^[242] Between 1991 and 1996, the Dutch armed forces phased out their conscript personnel and converted to an all-professional force. The last conscript troops were inducted in 1995, and demobilized in 1996.^[242] The suspension means that citizens are no longer forced to serve in the armed forces, as long as it is not required for the safety of the country. Since then, the Dutch army has become an all-professional force. However, to this day, every male and – from January 2020 onward – female^[243] citizen aged 17 gets a letter in which they are told that they have been registered but do not have to present themselves for service.^[244]

Norway

Conscription was constitutionally established the 12 April 1907 with Kongeriket Norges Grunnlov § 119..^[245] As of March 2016, Norway currently employs a weak form of mandatory military service for men and women. In practice recruits are not forced to serve, instead only those who are motivated are selected.^[246] About 60,000 Norwegians are available for conscription every year, but only 8,000 to 10,000 are conscripted.^[247] Since 1985, women have been able to enlist for voluntary service as regular recruits. On 14 June 2013 the Norwegian Parliament voted to extend conscription to women, making Norway the first NATO member and first European country to make national service compulsory for both sexes.^[248] In earlier times, up until at least the early 2000s, all men aged 19–44 were subject to mandatory service, with good reasons required to avoid becoming drafted. There is a right of conscientious objection.

In addition to the military service, the Norwegian government draft a total of 8,000^[249] men and women between 18 and 55 to non-military Civil defence duty.^[250] (Not to be confused with Alternative civilian service.) Former service in the military does not exclude anyone from later being drafted to the Civil defence, but an upper limit of total 19 months of service applies.^[251] Neglecting mobilisation orders to training exercises and actual incidents, may impose fines.^[252]

Serbia

As of 1 January 2011, Serbia no longer practises mandatory military service. Prior to this, mandatory military service lasted 6 months for men. Conscientious objectors could however opt for 9 months of civil service instead.

On 15 December 2010, the Parliament of Serbia voted to suspend mandatory military service. The decision fully came into force on 1 January 2011.^[253]

Sweden

Swedish conscripts in 2008

Sweden had conscription (Swedish: värnplikt) for men between 1901 and 2010. During the last few decades it was selective.^[254] Since 1980, women have been allowed to sign up by choice, and, if passing the tests, do military training together with male conscripts. Since 1989 women have been allowed to serve in all military positions and units, including combat.^[84]

In 2010, conscription was made gender-neutral, meaning both women and men would be conscripted on equal terms. The conscription system was simultaneously deactivated in peacetime.^[84] Seven years later, referencing increased military threat, the Swedish Government reactivated military conscription. Beginning in 2018, both men and women are conscripted.^[84]

Taiwan

Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), maintains an active conscription system. All qualified male citizens of military age are now obligated to receive 4-month of military training. In December 2022, President Tsai Ing-wen led the government to announce the reinstatement of the mandatory 1-year active duty military service from January 2024.

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom introduced conscription to full-time military service for the first time in January 1916 (the eighteenth month of World War I) and abolished it in 1920. Ireland, then part of the United Kingdom, was exempted from the original 1916 military service legislation, and although further legislation in 1918 gave power for an extension of conscription to Ireland, the power was never put into effect.

Conscription was reintroduced in 1939, in the lead up to World War II, and continued in force until 1963. Northern Ireland was exempted from conscription legislation throughout the whole period.

In all, eight million men were conscripted during both World Wars, as well as several hundred thousand younger single women.^[255] The introduction of conscription in May 1939, before the war began, was partly due to pressure from the French, who emphasized the need for a large British army to oppose the Germans.^[256] From early 1942 unmarried women age 19–30 were conscripted. Most were sent to the factories, but they could volunteer for the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) and other women's services. Some women served in the Women's Land Army: initially volunteers but later conscription was introduced. However, women who were already working in a skilled job considered helpful to the war effort, such as a General Post Office telephonist, were told to continue working as before. None was assigned to combat roles unless she volunteered. By 1943 women were liable to some form of directed labour up to age 51. During the Second World War, 1.4 million British men volunteered for service and 3.2 million were conscripted. Conscripts comprised 50% of the Royal Air Force, 60% of the Royal Navy and 80% of the British Army.^[257]

The abolition of conscription in Britain was announced on 4 April 1957, by new prime minister Harold Macmillan, with the last conscripts being recruited three years later.^[258]

United States

Conscription in the United States ended in 1973, but males aged between 18 and 25 are required to register with the Selective Service System to enable a reintroduction of conscription if necessary. President Gerald Ford had suspended mandatory draft registration in 1975, but President Jimmy Carter reinstated that requirement when the Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan five years later. Consequently, Selective Service registration is still required of almost all young men.^[259] There have been no prosecutions for violations of the draft registration law since 1986.^[260] Males between the ages of 17 and 45, and female members of the US National Guard may be conscripted for federal militia service pursuant to 10 U.S. Code § 246 and the Militia Clauses of the United States Constitution.^[261]

In February 2019, the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas ruled that male-only conscription registration breached the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause. In National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System, a case brought by non-profit men's rights organisation the National Coalition for Men against the U.S. Selective Service System, judge Gray H. Miller issued a declaratory judgement that the male-only registration requirement is unconstitutional, though did not specify what action the government should take.^[262] That ruling was reversed by the Fifth Circuit. In June 2021, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the decision by the Court of Appeals.

Other countries

• Conscription in Australia
• Conscription in Canada
• Conscription in Egypt
• Conscription in France
• Conscription in Gibraltar
• Conscription in Malaysia
• Conscription in Mexico
• Conscription in New Zealand
• Conscription in Russia
• Conscription in Singapore
• Conscription in South Korea
• Conscription in Switzerland
• Conscription in Turkey
• Conscription in Ukraine
• Conscription in the Ottoman Empire
• Conscription in the Russian Empire