Tenses

Verb tenses are inflectional forms which can be used to express that something occurs in the past, present, or future.^[2] In English, the only tenses are past and non-past, though the term "future" is sometimes applied to periphrastic constructions involving modals such as will.

Aspects

Moods

Simple past

The simple past or past simple, sometimes also called the preterite, consists of the bare past tense of the verb (ending in -ed for regular verbs, and formed in various ways for irregular ones, with the following spelling rules for regular verbs: verbs ending in -e add only –d to the end (e.g. live – lived, not *liveed), verbs ending in -y change to -ied (e.g. study – studied) and verbs ending in a group of a consonant + a vowel + a consonant double the final consonant (e.g. stop – stopped) —see English verbs for details). In most questions (and other situations requiring inversion), when negated, and in certain emphatic statements, a periphrastic construction consisting of did and the bare infinitive of the main verb is generally used instead—see do-support.

The simple past is used for a single event in the past, for past habitual action, or for a past state:

He took the money and ran.

I visited them every day for a year.

I knew how to fight even as a child.

However, for action that was ongoing at the time referred to, the past progressive is generally used instead. For stative verbs that do or do not use progressive aspect when expressing a temporary state, see § Progressive aspect. For the use of could see in place of saw etc., see have got and can see below.

The simple past is often close in meaning to the present perfect. The simple past is used when the event is conceived as occurring at a particular time in the past, or during a period that ended in the past (i.e. it does not last up until the present time). This time frame may be explicitly stated, or implicit in the context (for example the past tense is often used when describing a sequence of past events).

I was born in 1980.

We turned the oven off two minutes ago.

She placed the letter on the table, sighed, and left the house.

For further discussion and examples, see § Present perfect below.

Various compound constructions exist for denoting past habitual action. The sentence When I was young, I played football every Saturday might alternatively be phrased using used to (... I used to play ...) or using would (... I would play...).

In exceptional cases, the present simple can be used instead of the past simple as a stylistic tool, both as a way of literary expression and in everyday speech. Typical examples include telling jokes (as in Three men walk into a bar), emotional storytelling (as in So I come home and I see this giant box in front of my door) and referring to historical events (as in King Henry wins his last victory in 1422.).

The past simple is also used without past reference in some instances: in condition clauses and some other dependent clauses referring to hypothetical circumstances (see Conditional sentences § Notes and § Dependent clauses below), and after certain expressions of wish. For the past subjunctive (were in place of was), see English subjunctive. For the use of the past tense in indirect speech and similar contexts, see § Indirect speech below.

The -ed ending of regular verbs is pronounced as follows:

• Regular verb endings with voiced consonants + /d/, e.g. hugged /hʌɡd/.
• Regular verb endings with unvoiced consonants + /t/, stopped /stɒpt/.
• Regular verb endings with /t/ or /d/ + /ɪd/, e.g. needed /niːdɪd/.

Past progressive/continuous

The past progressive or past continuous construction combines progressive aspect with past tense, and is formed using the past tense of be (was or were) with the present participle of the main verb. It indicates an action that was ongoing at the past time being considered:

At three o'clock yesterday, I was working in the garden.

For stative verbs that do not use the progressive aspect, the simple past is used instead (At three o'clock yesterday we were in the garden).

The past progressive is often used to denote an action that was interrupted by an event,^[8][9] or for two actions taking place in parallel:

While I was washing the dishes, I heard a loud noise.

While you were washing the dishes, Sue was walking the dog.

(Interrupted actions in the past can also sometimes be denoted using the past perfect progressive, as described below.)

The past progressive can also be used to refer to past action that occurred over a range of time and is viewed as an ongoing situation:

I was working in the garden all day yesterday.

That could also be expressed using the simple past, as I worked..., which implies that the action is viewed as a unitary event (although the effective meaning is not very different).

The past progressive shares certain special uses with other past tense constructions; see Conditional sentences § Notes, § Dependent clauses, Expressions of wish § Notes, and § Indirect speech.

Past perfect

The past perfect, sometimes called the pluperfect, combines past tense with perfect aspect; it is formed by combining had (the past tense of the auxiliary have) with the past participle of the main verb. It is used when referring to an event that took place prior to the time frame being considered.^[10] This time frame may be stated explicitly, as a stated time or the time of another past action:

We had finished the job by 2 o'clock.

He had already left when we arrived.

The time frame may also be understood implicitly from the previous or later context:

I was eating ... I had invited Jim to the meal but he was unable to attend. (i.e. I invited him before I started eating)

I had lost my way. (i.e. this happened prior to the time of the past events I am describing or am about to describe)

Compare He had left when we arrived (where his leaving preceded our arrival), with the form with the simple past, He left when we arrived (where his leaving was concurrent with or shortly after our arrival). Unlike the present perfect, the past perfect can readily be used with an adverb specifying a past time frame for the occurrence. For example, while it is incorrect to say *I have done it last Friday (the use of last Friday, specifying the past time, would require the simple past rather than the present perfect), there is no such objection to a sentence like "I had done it the previous Friday".^[11] The past perfect can also be used for states or repeated occurrences pertaining over a period up to a time in the past, particularly in stating "for how long" or since when". However, if the state is temporary and the verb can be used in the progressive aspect, the past perfect progressive would normally be used instead. Some examples with the plain past perfect:

I had lived in that house for 10 years.

The children had been in their room since lunchtime.

For other specific uses of the past perfect, see Conditional sentences § Notes, § Dependent clauses, Expressions of wish § Notes, and § Indirect speech.

Past perfect progressive

The past perfect progressive or past perfect continuous (also known as the pluperfect progressive or pluperfect continuous) combines perfect progressive aspect with past tense. It is formed by combining had (the past tense of auxiliary have), been (the past participle of be), and the present participle of the main verb.

Uses of the past perfect progressive are analogous to those of the present perfect progressive, except that the point of reference is in the past. For example:

I was tired because I had been running.

By yesterday morning they had already been working for twelve hours.

Among the witnesses was John Smith, who had been staying at the hotel since July 10.

This form is sometimes used for actions in the past that were interrupted by some event^[12] (compare the use of the past progressive as given above). For example:

I had been working on my novel when she entered the room to talk to me.

This implies that I stopped working when she came in (or had already stopped a short time before); the plain past progressive (I was working...) would not necessarily carry this implication.

If the verb in question does not use the progressive aspect, then the plain past perfect is used instead (see examples in the previous section).

The past perfect progressive may also have additional specific uses similar to those of the plain past perfect; see § Conditional sentences, § Dependent clauses, § Expressions of wish, and § Indirect speech.

Simple present

The simple present or present simple is a form that combines present tense with "simple" (neither perfect nor progressive) aspect. In the indicative mood it consists of the base form of the verb, or the -s form when the subject is third-person singular (the verb be uses the forms am, is, are). However, with non-auxiliary verbs it also has a periphrastic form consisting of do (or third-person singular does) with the bare infinitive of the main verb—this form is used in questions (and other clauses requiring inversion) and negations, and sometimes for emphasis. For details of this, see do-support.

The principal uses of the simple present are given below. More examples can be found in the article Simple present.

• To refer to an action or event that takes place habitually. Such uses are often accompanied by frequency adverbs and adverbial phrases such as always, often, from time to time and never. Examples:

I always take a shower.

He writes for a living.

This contrasts with the present progressive, which is used for actions taking place at the present moment.

• With stative verbs in senses that do not use progressive aspect, to refer to a present or general state, whether temporary, permanent or habitual. (In senses that do use progressive aspect, the present simple is used when the state is permanent or habitual.)

You are happy.

I know what to do.

Denmark lies to the north of Germany.

• When quoting someone or something, even if the words were spoken in the (usually very recent) past:

The label says "External use only".

Mary says she's ready.

• To refer to a single completed action, as in recounting the events of a story in the present tense (see historical present), and in such contexts as newspaper headlines, where it replaces the present perfect:

In Hamlet, Ophelia drowns in a stream.

40-year-old wins gold medal.

• Sometimes to refer to an arranged future event, usually with a reference to time:

We leave for Berlin tomorrow at 1 pm.

• In providing a commentary on events as they occur, or in describing some theoretical sequence of events:

I chop the chives and add them to the mixture.

According to the manager's new idea, I welcome the guests and you give the presentation.

• In many dependent clauses referring to the future, particularly condition clauses, clauses expressing place and time, and many relative clauses (see § Dependent clauses below):

If he finds your sweets, he will eat them.

We will report as soon as we receive any information.

• In certain situations in a temporal adverbial clause, rather than the present progressive:

We can see the light improving as we speak.

In colloquial English it is common to use can see, can hear for the present tense of see, hear, etc., and have got for the present tense of have (denoting possession). See have got and can see below.

For the present subjunctive, see English subjunctive. For uses of modal verbs (which may be regarded as instances of the simple present) see English modal verbs.

Present progressive

The present progressive or present continuous form combines present tense with progressive aspect. It thus refers to an action or event conceived of as having limited duration, taking place at the present time. It consists of a form of the simple present of be together with the present participle of the main verb and the ending -ing.

We are cooking dinner now.

This often contrasts with the simple present, which expresses repeated or habitual action (We cook dinner every day). However, sometimes the present continuous is used with always, generally to express annoyance about a habitual action:

You are always making a mess in the study.

Certain stative verbs do not use the progressive aspect, so the present simple is used instead in those cases (see § Progressive aspect above).

The present progressive can be used to refer to a planned future event:

We are tidying the attic tomorrow.

It also appears with future reference in many condition and time clauses and other dependent clauses (see § Dependent clauses below):

If he's sleeping when you arrive, wake him up.

I will finish the job while the children are playing.

It can also refer to something taking place not necessarily at the time of speaking, but at the time currently under consideration, in the case of a story or narrative being told in the present tense (as mentioned above under present simple):

The king and queen are conversing when Hamlet enters.

For the possibility of a present subjunctive progressive, see English subjunctive.

Present perfect

The present perfect (traditionally called simply the perfect) combines present tense with perfect aspect, denoting the present state of an action's being completed, that is, that the action took place before the present time. (It is thus often close in meaning to the simple past tense, although the two are not usually interchangeable.) It is formed with the present tense of the auxiliary have (namely have or has) and the past participle of the main verb.

The choice of present perfect or past tense depends on the frame of reference (period or point in time) in which the event is conceived as occurring. If the frame of reference extends to the present time, the present perfect is used. For example:

I have written a letter this morning. (if it is still the morning)

He has produced ten plays. (if he is still alive and professionally active)^[13][14]

They have never traveled abroad. (if they are still alive and considered capable of traveling)

If the frame of reference is a time in the past, or a period that ended in the past, the past tense is used instead. For example: I wrote a letter this morning (it is now afternoon); He produced ten plays (he is now dead or his career is considered over, or a particular past time period is being referred to); They never traveled abroad (similarly). See under Simple past for more examples. The simple past is generally used when the occurrence has a specific past time frame—either explicitly stated (I wrote a book in 1995; the water boiled a minute ago), or implied by the context (for example, in the narration of a sequence of events). It is therefore normally incorrect to write a sentence like *I have written a novel yesterday; the present perfect cannot be used with an expression of past time such as yesterday.^[15]

With already or yet, traditional usage calls for the present perfect: Have you eaten yet? Yes, I've already eaten. Current informal American speech allows the simple past: Did you eat yet? Yes, I ate already., although the present perfect is still fully idiomatic here and may be preferred depending on area, personal preference, or the wish to avoid possible ambiguity.

Use of the present perfect often draws attention to the present consequences of the past action or event, as opposed to its actual occurrence.^[13] The sentence she has come probably means she is here now, while the simple past she came does not.^[16] The sentence, “Have you been to the fair?” suggests that the fair is still going on, while the sentence, “Did you go to the fair?” could mean that the fair is over.^[17] (See also been and gone below.) Some more examples:

I have eaten. (implies that I'm no longer hungry)

We have made the dinner. (implies that the dinner is now ready to eat)

The weather has gotten cloudier. (implies that it is now more cloudy than previously)

It may also refer to an ongoing state or habitual action, particularly in saying for how long, or since when, something is the case. For example,

I have lived in Paris for five years.

He has held the record since he won his Olympic gold.

We have eaten breakfast together every morning since our honeymoon.

This implies that I still live in Paris, that he still holds the record and that we still eat together every morning (although the first sentence may also refer to some unspecified past period of five years). When the circumstance is temporary, the present perfect progressive is often appropriate in such sentences (see below); however, if the verb is one that does not use the progressive aspect, the basic present perfect is used in that case too:

Amy has been on the swing for ten minutes.

The present perfect may refer to a habitual circumstance, or a circumstance being part of a theoretical or story narrative being given in the present tense (provided the circumstance is of an event's having taken place previously):

Whenever I get home, John has usually already arrived.

According to the plan, the speeches have already been given when the cake is brought out.

The present perfect may also be used with future reference, instead of the future perfect, in those dependent clauses where future occurrence is denoted by present tense (see § Dependent clauses below). For example:

When you have written it, show it to me.

For the possibility of a present perfect subjunctive, see English subjunctive. For special use of the present perfect of get to express possession or obligation, see have got below. For the use of have been in place of have gone, see been and gone below.

Present perfect progressive/continuous

The present perfect continuous (or present perfect progressive) construction combines some of this perfect progressive aspect with present tense. It is formed with the present tense of have (have or has), the past participle of be (been), and the present participle of the main verb and the ending -ing.

This construction is used for ongoing action in the past that continues right up to the present or has recently finished:

I have been writing this paper all morning.

Why are his eyes red? He has been crying.

It is frequently used when stating for how long, or since when, something is the case:

She has been working here since 1997.

How long have you been sitting there?

They have been arguing about it for two weeks.

In these sentences the actions are still continuing, but it is the past portion of them that is being considered, and so the perfect aspect is used. (A sentence without perfect aspect, such as I am sitting here for three hours, implies an intention to perform the action for that length of time.) With stative verbs that are not used in the progressive, and for situations that are considered permanent, the present perfect (non-progressive) is used instead; for examples of this see § Present perfect above.

Simple future

The term simple future, future simple or future indefinite, as applied to English, generally refers to the combination of the modal auxiliary verb will with the bare infinitive of the main verb. Sometimes (particularly in more formal or old-fashioned English) shall is preferred to will when the subject is first person (I or we); see shall and will for details. The auxiliary is often contracted to 'll; see English auxiliaries and contractions.

This construction can be used to indicate what the speaker views as facts about the future, including confident predictions:

The sun will rise tomorrow at 6:14.

It will rain later this week.

It may be used to describe future circumstances that are subject to some condition (see also § Conditional sentences):

He will go there if he can.

However English also has other ways of referring to future circumstances. For planned or scheduled actions the present progressive or simple present may be used (see those sections for examples). There is also a going-to future, common in colloquial English, which is often used to express intentions or predictions (I am going to write a book some day; I think that it is going to rain). Use of the will/shall construction when expressing intention often indicates a spontaneous decision:

I know! I'll use this book as a door stop.

Compare I'm going to use..., which implies that the intention to do so has existed for some time.

Use of present tense rather than future constructions in condition clauses and certain other dependent clauses is described below under Conditional sentences § Notes and § Dependent clauses.

The modal verbs will and shall also have other uses besides indicating future time reference. For example:

I will pass this exam. (often expresses determination in addition to futurity)

You will obey me! (insistence)

I will not do it! (negative insistence, refusal)

At this moment I will tolerate no dissent. (strong volition)

He hasn't eaten all day; he will be hungry now. (confident speculation about the present)

One of his faults is that he will make trouble unnecessarily. (habit)

Shall we get to work? (suggestion)

For more examples see will and shall in the article on modal verbs, and the article shall and will.

Future progressive

The future progressive or future continuous combines progressive aspect with future time reference; it is formed with the auxiliary will (or shall in the first person; see shall and will), the bare infinitive be, and the present participle of the main verb. It is used mainly to indicate that an event will be in progress at a particular point in the future:

This time tomorrow I will be taking my driving test.

I imagine we will already be eating when you arrive.

The usual restrictions apply, on the use both of the future and of the progressive: simple rather than progressive aspect is used with some stative verbs (see Progressive aspect § Notes), and present rather than future constructions are used in many dependent clauses (see § Conditional sentences and § Dependent clauses below).

The same construction may occur when will or shall is given one of its other uses (as described under § Future simple), for example:

He will be sitting in his study at this time. (confident speculation about the present)

Future perfect

The future perfect combines § Perfect aspect with future time reference. It consists of the auxiliary will (or sometimes shall in the first person, as above), the bare infinitive have, and the past participle of the main verb. It indicates an action that is to be completed sometime prior to a future time of perspective, or an ongoing action continuing up to a future time of perspective (compare uses of the present perfect above).

I shall have finished my essay by Thursday.

When I finally search him he will have disposed of the evidence.

By next year we will have lived in this house for half a century.

For the use of the present tense rather than future constructions in certain dependent clauses, see Conditional sentences § Notes and § Dependent clauses below.

The same construction may occur when will or shall is given one of its other meanings (see under § Simple future); for example:

He will have had his tea by now. (confident speculation about the present)

You will have completed this task by the time I return, is that understood? (giving instruction)

Future perfect progressive

The future perfect progressive or future perfect continuous combines perfect progressive aspect with future time reference. It is formed by combining the auxiliary will (or sometimes shall, as above), the bare infinitive have, the past participle been, and the present participle of the main verb.

Uses of the future perfect progressive are analogous to those of the present perfect progressive, except that the point of reference is in the future. For example:

He will be very tired because he will have been working all morning.

By 6 o'clock we will have been drinking for ten hours.

For the use of present tense in place of future constructions in certain dependent clauses, see Conditional sentences § Notes and § Dependent clauses below.

The same construction may occur when the auxiliary (usually will) has one of its other meanings, particularly expressing a confident assumption about the present:

No chance of finding him sober now; he'll have been drinking all day.

Simple conditional

The simple conditional or conditional simple, also called conditional present, and in some meanings future-in-the-past simple, is formed by combining the modal auxiliary would with the bare infinitive of the main verb. Sometimes (particularly in formal or old-fashioned English) should is used in place of would when the subject is first person (I or we), in the same way that shall may replace will in such instances; see shall and will. The auxiliary is often shortened to 'd; see English auxiliaries and contractions.

The simple conditional is used principally in a main clause accompanied by an implicit or explicit condition (if-clause). (This is described in more detail in the article on English conditional sentences; see also § Conditional sentences below.) The time referred to may be (hypothetical) present or future. For example:

I would go tomorrow (if she asked me).

If I were you, I would see a doctor.

If she had bought those shares, she would be rich now.

In some varieties of English, would (or 'd) is also regularly used in the if-clauses themselves (If you'd leave now, you'd be on time), but this is often considered nonstandard. This is widespread especially in spoken American English in all registers, though not usually in more formal writing.^[18] There are also situations where would is used in if-clauses in British English too, but these can usually be interpreted as a modal use of would (e.g. If you would listen to me once in a while, you might learn something).^[19] For more details, see English conditional sentences § Use of will and would in condition clauses.

For the use of would after the verb wish and the expression if only, see § Expressions of wish.

The auxiliary verbs could and might can also be used to indicate the conditional mood, as in the following:

If the opportunity were here, I could do the job. (= ... I would be able to do ... )

If the opportunity were here, I might do the job. (= ... maybe I would do ...)

Forms with would may also have "future-in-the-past" meaning:

We moved into the cottage in 1958. We would live there for the next forty years.

See also Indirect speech § Notes and § Dependent clauses. For other possible meanings of would and should (as well as could and might), see the relevant sections of English modal verbs.

Conditional progressive

The conditional (present) progressive or conditional continuous combines conditional mood with progressive aspect. It combines would (or the contraction 'd, or sometimes should in the first person, as above) with the bare infinitive be and the present participle of the main verb. It has similar uses to those of the simple conditional (above), but is used for ongoing actions or situations (usually hypothetical):

Today she would be exercising if it were not for her injury.

He wouldn't be working today if he had been given the time off.

It can also have future-in-the-past meanings:

We didn't know then that we would be waiting another three hours.

For the use of would in condition clauses, see Simple conditional § Notes above (see also § Conditional sentences and Dependent clauses § Notes below). For use in indirect speech constructions, see § Indirect speech. For other uses of constructions with would and should, see English modal verbs. For general information on conditionals in English, see English conditional sentences (and also § Conditional sentences below).

Conditional perfect

The conditional perfect construction combines conditional mood with perfect aspect, and consists of would (or the contraction 'd, or sometimes should in the first person, as above), the bare infinitive have, and the past participle of the main verb. It is used to denote conditional situations attributed to past time, usually those that are or may be contrary to fact.

I would have set an extra place if I had known you were coming.

I would have set an extra place (but I didn't because someone said you weren't coming). (implicit condition)

For the possibility of use of would in the condition clauses themselves, see Simple conditional § Notes (see also § Dependent clauses below). For more information on conditional constructions, see § Conditional sentences below, and the article English conditional sentences.

The same construction may have "future-in-the-past" meanings (see Indirect speech). For other meanings of would have and should have, see English modal verbs.

Conditional perfect progressive

The conditional perfect progressive or conditional perfect continuous construction combines conditional mood with perfect progressive aspect. It consists of would (or sometimes should in the first person, as above) with the bare infinitive have, the past participle been and the present participle of the main verb. It generally refers to a conditional ongoing situation in hypothetical (usually counterfactual) past time:

I would have been sitting on that seat if I hadn't been late for the party.

Similar considerations and alternative forms and meanings apply as noted in the above sections on other conditional constructions.

Bare infinitive

A bare infinitive (the base form of the verb, without the particle to), or an infinitive phrase introduced by such a verb, may be used as follows:

• As complement of the auxiliary do, in negations, questions and other situations where do-support is used:

Do you want to go home?

Please do not laugh.

• As complement of will (shall) or would (should) in the future and conditional constructions described above:

The cat will come home.

We should appreciate an answer at your earliest convenience.

• More generally, as complement of any of the modal verbs can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would (including would rather), and also dare and need in their modal uses:

I can speak Swedish.

Need you use so much flour?

I dare say he will be back.

• As complement of the expression had better:

You had better give back that telephone.

• As second complement of the transitive verbs let (including in the expression "let's ...", short for "let us"), make, have (in the sense of cause something to be done) and bid (in archaic usage). These are examples of raising-to-object verbs (the logical subject of the governed infinitive is raised to the position of direct object of the governing verb):

That made me laugh. (but passive voice: I was made to laugh; see under to-infinitive below)

We let them leave.

Let's play Monopoly!

I had him look at my car.

She bade me approach her. (archaic)

• As second or sole complement of the verb help (the to-infinitive can also be used):

This proposal will help (to) balance the budget.

Can you help me (to) get over this wall?

• As second complement of verbs of perception such as see, hear, feel, etc., although in these cases the present participle is also possible, particularly when an ongoing state rather than a single action is perceived:

We saw him try to escape. (with present participle: We saw him trying to escape.)

She felt him breathe on her neck. (with present participle: She felt him breathing on her neck.)

• As a predicative expression in pseudo-cleft sentences of the following type:

What I did was tie the rope to the beam.

What you should do is invite her round for dinner.

• After why, in elliptical questions:

Why bother?

The form of the bare infinitive is also commonly taken as the dictionary form or citation form (lemma) of an English verb. For perfect and progressive (continuous) infinitive constructions, see § Perfect and progressive nonfinite constructions below.

To-infinitive

The to-infinitive consists of the bare infinitive introduced by the particle to.^[21] Outside dictionary headwords, it is commonly used as a citation form of the English verb ("How do we conjugate the verb to go?") It is also commonly given as a translation of foreign infinitives ("The French word boire means 'to drink'.")

Other modifiers may be placed between to and the verb (as in to boldly go; to slowly drift away), but this is sometimes regarded by some as a grammatical or stylistic error – see split infinitive for details.

The main uses of to-infinitives, or infinitive phrases introduced by them, are as follows:

• As complement of the modal and auxiliary verbs ought (to) and used (to):

We ought to do that now.

I used to play outside every day when I was a child.

• As complement of many other verbs used intransitively, including need and dare (when not used as modal-like verbs), want, expect, try, hope, agree, refuse, etc. These are raising-to-subject verbs, where the logical subject is promoted to the position of subject of the governing verb. With some verbs the infinitive may carry a significantly different meaning from a gerund: compare I stopped to talk to her with I stopped talking to her, or I forgot to buy the bread with I forgot buying the bread.

I need to get to a telephone.

Try not to make so many mistakes.

They refused to assist us.

• As second complement of certain transitive verbs. These are mostly raising-to-object verbs, as described above for the bare infinitive; however, in some cases, it is the subject of the main clause that is the logical subject of the infinitival clause, as in "John promises Mary to cook", where the person who will cook is John (the subject of the main sentence), and not Mary (the object).

I want him to be promoted.

He expects his brother to arrive this week.

• As an adverbial modifier expressing purpose, or sometimes result (also expressible using in order to in the first case, or so as to in either case):

I came here to listen to what you have to say.

They cut the fence to gain access to the site.

She scored three quick goals to level the score.

• As a subject of a sentence or as a predicative expression. (A gerund can often be used for this also.^[22])

To live is to suffer.

For them to be with us in this time of crisis is evidence of their friendship.

• In apposition to a subject expletive pronoun it, in sentences of the following type:

It is nice to live here.

It makes me happy to feed my animals.

• Alone in certain exclamations or elliptical sentences, and in certain sentence-modifying expressions:

Oh, to be in England ...

To think that he used to call me sister.

To be honest, I don't think you have a chance.

• In certain fixed expressions, such as in order to (see above), so as to, as if to, about to (meaning on the point of doing something), have to (for obligation or necessity). For more on the expression am to, is to, were to, etc. (usually expressing obligation or expectation), see am to.

We are to demolish this building.

He smiled as if to acknowledge his acquiescence.

• In elliptical questions (direct or indirect), where no subject is expressed (but for those introduced by why, see bare infinitive above):

Well, what to do now?

I wondered whether to resign at that point.

• As a modifier of certain nouns and adjectives:

the reason to laugh

the effort to expand

anxious to get a ticket

• As a relative clause (see English relative clauses § Nonfinite relative clauses). These modify a noun, and often have a passive-like construction where the object (or a preposition complement) is zero in the infinitive phrase, the gap being understood to be filled by the noun being modified. An alternative in the prepositional case is to begin with a prepositional phrase containing a relative pronoun (as is done sometimes in finite relative clauses).

the thing to leave behind (the thing understood as the object of leave)

a subject to talk loudly about (a subject understood as the complement of about; see also stranded preposition)

a subject about which to talk loudly (alternative to the above, somewhat more formal)

the man to save us (no passive-like construction, the man understood as the subject of save)

• As a modifier of an adjective, again with a passive-like construction as above, here with the gap understood to be filled by the noun modified by the adjective phrase:

easy to use

nice to look at

In many of the above uses, the implied subject of the infinitive can be marked using a prepositional phrase with for: "This game is easy for a child to play", etc. However this does not normally apply when the infinitive is the complement of a verb (other than the copula, and certain verbs that allow a construction with for, such as wait: "They waited for us to arrive"). It also does not apply in elliptical questions, or in fixed expressions such as so as to, am to, etc. (although it does apply in in order to).

When the verb is implied, the to-infinitive may be reduced to simply to: "Do I have to?" See verb phrase ellipsis.

For perfect and progressive infinitives, such as (to) have written and (to) be writing, see § Perfect and progressive nonfinite constructions below.

Present participle

The present participle is one of the uses of the -ing form of a verb. This usage is adjectival or adverbial. The main uses of this participle, or of participial phrases introduced by it, are as follows. (Uses of gerunds and verbal nouns, which take the same -ing form, appear in sections below.)

• In progressive and perfect progressive constructions, as described in the relevant sections above:

The man is fixing my bike.

We had been working for nine hours.

• As an adjective phrase modifying a noun:

the flower opening up

the news supporting the point

• As an adjectival phrase modifying a noun phrase that is the object of a verb, provided the verb admits this particular construction. (For alternative or different constructions used with certain verbs, see the sections on the bare infinitive and to-infinitive above.)

I saw them digging a hole.

We prefer it standing over there.

• As an adverbial phrase, where the role of subject of the nonfinite verb is usually understood to be played by the subject of the main clause (but see dangling participle). A participial clause like this may be introduced by a conjunction such as when or while.

Looking out of the window, Mary saw a car go by. (it is understood to be Mary who was looking out of the window)

We peeled the apples while waiting for the water to boil.

• More generally, as a clause or sentence modifier, without any specifically understood subject

Broadly speaking, the project was successful.

• In a nominative absolute construction, where the participle is given an explicit subject (which normally is different from that of the main clause):

The children being hungry, I set about preparing tea.

The meeting was adjourned, Sue and I objecting that there were still matters to discuss.

For present participle constructions with perfect aspect (e.g. having written), see § Perfect and progressive nonfinite constructions below.

Present participles may come to be used as pure adjectives (see Types of participle). Examples of participles that do this frequently are interesting, exciting, and enduring. Such words may then take various adjectival prefixes and suffixes, as in uninteresting and interestingly.

Past participle

English past participles have both active and passive uses. In a passive use, an object or preposition complement becomes zero, the gap being understood to be filled by the noun phrase the participle modifies (compare similar uses of the to-infinitive above). Uses of past participles and participial phrases introduced by them are as follows:

• In perfect constructions as described in the relevant sections above (this is the chief situation where the participle is active rather than passive):

He has fixed my bike.

They would have sung badly.

• In forming the passive voice:

My bike was fixed yesterday.

A new church is being built here.

• As an adjectival predicative expression used in constructions with certain verbs (some of these are described under English passive voice):

Will you have your ear looked at by a doctor?

I found my bike broken.

• As an adjective phrase directly modifying a noun (see also reduced relative clause):

The bag left on the train cannot be traced.

• Used adverbially, or (with a subject) in a nominative absolute construction:

Hated by his family, he left the town for good.

The bomb defused, he returned to his comrades.

The last type of phrase can be preceded with the preposition with: With these words spoken, he turned and left.

As with present participles, past participles may function as simple adjectives: "the burnt logs"; "we were very excited". These normally represent the passive meaning of the participle, although some participles formed from intransitive verbs can be used in an active sense: "the fallen leaves"; "our fallen comrades".

Gerund

The gerund takes the same form (ending in -ing) as the present participle, but is used as a noun (or rather the verb phrase introduced by the gerund is used as a noun phrase).^[23] Many uses of gerunds are thus similar to noun uses of the infinitive. Uses of gerunds and gerund phrases are illustrated below:

• As subject or predicative expression:

Solving problems is satisfying.

My favorite activity is spotting butterflies.

• As object of certain verbs that admit such constructions:

I like solving problems.

We tried restarting the computer.

• In a passive-type construction after certain verbs, with a gap (zero) in object or complement position, understood to be filled by the subject of the main clause (see English passive voice § Additional passive constructions):

That floor wants/needs scrubbing.

It doesn't bear thinking about.

• As complement of certain prepositions:

No one is better at solving problems.

Before jogging, she stretches.

After investigating the facts, we made a decision.

That prevents you from eating too much.

Instead of the writing on the object being changed, it should have disappeared.

It is considered grammatically correct to express the agent (logical subject) of a gerund using a possessive form (they object to my helping them), although in informal English a simple noun or pronoun is often used instead (they object to me helping them). For details see fused participle.

For gerund constructions with perfect aspect (e.g. (my) having written), see § Perfect and progressive nonfinite constructions below.

Perfect and progressive nonfinite constructions

There are also nonfinite constructions that are marked for perfect, progressive or perfect progressive aspect, using the infinitives, participles or gerunds of the appropriate auxiliaries. The meanings are as would be expected for the respective aspects: perfect for prior occurrence, progressive for ongoing occurrence at a particular time. (Passive voice can also be marked in nonfinite constructions – with infinitives, gerunds and present participles – in the expected way: (to) be eaten, being eaten, having been eaten, etc.)

Examples of nonfinite constructions marked for the various aspects are given below.

Bare infinitive:

You should have left earlier. (perfect infinitive; for similar constructions and their meanings see English modal verbs)

She might be revising. (progressive; refers to an ongoing action at this moment)

He must have been working hard. (perfect progressive; i.e. I assume he has been working hard)

To-infinitive:

He is said to have resigned. (perfect infinitive; for this particular construction see said to)

I expect to be sitting here this time tomorrow. (progressive)

He claims to have been working here for ten weeks. (perfect progressive)

Present participle:

Having written the letter, she went to bed. (perfect)

The man having left, we began to talk. (perfect, in a nominative absolute construction)

Having been standing for several hours, they were beginning to feel tired. (perfect progressive)

Past participle:

We have been waiting a long time. (progressive, used only as part of a perfect progressive construction)

Gerund:

My having caught the spider impressed the others. (perfect)

We are not proud of having been drinking all night. (perfect progressive)

Other aspectual, temporal and modal information can be marked on nonfinite verbs using periphrastic constructions. For example, a "future infinitive" can be constructed using forms such as (to) be going to eat or (to) be about to eat.