Same-sex marriage has been legally recognized in Wisconsin since October 6, 2014, upon the resolution of a lawsuit challenging the state's ban on same-sex marriage. On October 6, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal of an appellate court ruling in Wolf v. Walker that had found Wisconsin's ban on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. The appellate court issued its order prohibiting enforcement of the state's ban on same-sex marriage the next day and Wisconsin counties began issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples immediately. Wisconsin had previously recognized domestic partnerships, which afforded limited legal rights to same-sex couples, from August 2009 until they were discontinued in April 2018.

The Constitution of Wisconsin had precluded state recognition of same-sex marriages and prohibited the establishment of any similar legal status under another name since 2006, when 59% of voters ratified a constitutional amendment defining marriage so as to exclude same-sex couples. A federal lawsuit filed in February 2014, Wolf v. Walker, challenged Wisconsin's refusal to grant marriage licenses to same-sex couples, its refusal to recognize same-sex marriages established in other jurisdictions, and related statutes. In June 2014, Judge Barbara Brandriff Crabb of the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Wisconsin ruled for the plaintiffs and in the week before she stayed her decision county clerks in 60 of the state's 72 counties issued marriage licenses to same-sex couples and some performed marriage ceremonies for them. The state appealed her decision to the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals, which affirmed her decision on September 4 and later stayed implementation of its ruling until the U.S. Supreme Court decided whether to consider the case.

Public opinion polls since voters adopted the constitutional amendment in 2006 have reported a trend in favor of the legal recognition of same-sex relationships, with a 2022 poll showing that 72% of Wisconsin residents supported same-sex marriage.[1]

Domestic partnerships

Domestic partnerships in Wisconsin afforded limited rights to same-sex couples. They were legalized in the state on August 3, 2009, but were discontinued on April 1, 2018 following the legalization of same-sex marriage. Domestic partnerships in Wisconsin provided select rights, such as the ability to inherit a partner's estate in the absence of a will, hospital and jail visitation, and the ability to access family medical leave to care for a sick partner.[2][3]

By June 2017, about 4,400 couples had registered a domestic partnership in Wisconsin, with 78% of these being opposite-sex couples.[2]

Same-sex marriage ban

Statutes

A bill that the Family Research Institute (FRI) called a "statutory endorsement of traditional marriage" was proposed in the Wisconsin Legislature in 1997.[4] It passed the Assembly on a 78–20 vote, but the Senate took no action on the measure before it adjourned.[5] Legislation in support of same-sex marriage was also proposed that year, but was not voted on by either chamber.[5]

A bill banning same-sex marriage was introduced in the Assembly on August 17, 2003,[6] and approved on a vote of 68–29 on October 23.[7] The Senate passed the bill by a vote of 22–10 on November 5.[8] Governor Jim Doyle vetoed the legislation on November 10.[9] The Assembly failed to override Doyle's veto by one vote, 63–33, on November 12.[10]

Wisconsin also has a marriage evasion law, which established criminal penalties of up to nine months' imprisonment and a fine up to $10,000 for leaving the state to contract a marriage that would not be valid in the state. According to a spokesperson for Lambda Legal in 2008, several states had similar laws, but Wisconsin's provided the harshest penalties. The applicability of the law to same-sex marriages was disputed, since it was designed to prevent fraud on the part of someone too young to marry legally in Wisconsin.[11][12]

Constitution

On March 5, 2004, the Assembly approved a state constitutional amendment by a vote of 68–27, that read:[13] Only a marriage between one man and one woman shall be valid or recognized as a marriage in this state. A legal status identical or substantially similar to that of marriage for unmarried individuals shall not be valid or recognized in this state. The Senate approved the same language by a 20–13 vote on March 12, completing the first of two legislative approvals required to place the amendment on the ballot.[14] The Senate approved the proposed amendment again on December 6, 2005, voting 19–14 along party lines.[15] The Assembly did the same on February 28, 2006, by a vote of 62–31. The question appeared as a referendum on the statewide ballot for the 2006 general election on November 7, 2006,[16][17] and voters approved the amendment by a margin of 59.4% to 40.6%.[18]

Lawsuits

State cases

McConkey v. Van Hollen

William McConkey, a political science instructor filed a lawsuit, McConkey v. Van Hollen, on April 9, 2009, with the Wisconsin Supreme Court, charging that the 2006 referendum which banned both same-sex marriage and civil unions in the state, violated the State Constitution because it proposed more than one question in a single ballot proposal, which is illegal under Wisconsin law.[19] On May 14, the court agreed to hear the case, specifying two questions, whether McConkey, as an individual voter, had standing to sue and whether the ballot initiative presented two questions. Wisconsin Attorney General J. B. Van Hollen challenged McConkey's standing.[20][21] The court heard oral arguments on November 3.[22][23] On June 30, 2010, the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled 7–0 in McConkey that the ballot measure was proper.[24]

Halopka-Ivery v. Walker

On April 16, 2014, a lesbian couple married in California sought original jurisdiction in the Wisconsin Supreme Court. They claimed the state's "parallel civil marriage and domestic partnership structure" denied them access to federal benefits. They also challenged Wisconsin's statute imposing criminal penalties on residents who contract in other jurisdictions a marriage that is not recognized by the state. On May 27, 2014, the Wisconsin Supreme Court, on a 5–2 vote, declined to hear the case.[25][26]

Federal cases

Burkett v. Zablocki

In 1971, Donna Burkett and Manonia Evans, an African American lesbian couple from Milwaukee, filed a lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Wisconsin against the Milwaukee County Clerk, Thomas Zablocki, for refusing to issue them a marriage license. The couple sought "an order compelling the clerk of Milwaukee County to issue them an application for a marriage license." Zablocki moved to dismiss the suit. The plaintiffs failed to submit timely briefs in response to the clerk's motion, and the court dismissed the case in 1972.[27][28]

Wolf v. Walker

On February 3, 2014, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and the law firm Mayer Brown filed a lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Wisconsin on behalf of four same-sex couples, including a lesbian couple married in Minnesota in 2013. It challenged the State Constitution's denial of marriage rights to same-sex couples and the state statute that provided criminal penalties for leaving the state to establish a marriage that was not valid in Wisconsin. The suit named Governor Scott Walker, several state officials, and two county clerks as defendants.[29][30] The case was assigned to U.S. District Judge Barbara Brandriff Crabb, who ruled on June 6, 2014 that the state's constitutional and statutory restrictions on same-sex marriage interfere with the fundamental right to marry, violating the Due Process Clause of the Constitution of the United States, and discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation, violating the Equal Protection Clause.[31] In response to the decision, though Crabb had yet to issue any order enforcing it, county clerks in increasing numbers began issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples and in some cases performing marriage ceremonies for them.[32][33] Renee Currie and Shari Roll were the first couple to be issued a license in Madison, and were married minutes later just a few blocks away from the Wisconsin State Capitol. The Milwaukee County Executive, Chris Abele, said he would keep the courthouse open until 9 p.m. so same-sex couples could be issued marriage licenses.[34] On June 13, after a week of legal maneuvering and a threat of legal action against the clerks on the part of Wisconsin Attorney General J. B. Van Hollen,[35] Crabb stayed enforcement of her decision while expressing disappointment that recent action by the U.S. Supreme Court in the Utah case of Kitchen v. Herbert compelled her to do so.[36]

On July 10, the state appealed the decision to the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals,[37] which combined the case for briefing with a similar Indiana case, Baskin v. Bogan, and scheduled oral arguments for August 26.[38] On September 4, the Seventh Circuit, in a unanimous opinion authored by Judge Richard Posner, upheld the district court decision.[39] Posner wrote:

The challenged laws discriminate against a minority defined by an immutable characteristic, and the only rationale that the states put forth with any conviction–that same-sex couples and their children don't need marriage because same-sex couples can't produce children, intended or unintended–is so full of holes that it cannot be taken seriously. To the extent that children are better off in families in which the parents are married, they are better off whether they are raised by their biological parents or by adoptive parents.

On September 9, Van Hollen asked the U.S. Supreme Court to consider the case.[40] The Seventh Circuit stayed enforcement of its ruling on September 18.[41] On October 6, 2014, the U.S. Supreme Court denied review of this case, allowing the Seventh Circuit's ruling to take effect.[42] Attorney General Van Hollen responded by stating, "the Seventh Circuit affirmed the District Court's decision holding Wisconsin's Marriage Protection Amendment unconstitutional, and the Supreme Court has declined the opportunity to examine that decision. It is now our obligation to comply with those court decisions." Governor Walker also instructed county clerks to comply and issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples.[43][44] Same-sex couples began marrying in Wisconsin the following day, Tuesday, October 7, 2014, after the Seventh Circuit and the District Court issued their mandates.[45][46]

Obergefell v. Hodges

On June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5–4 in Obergefell v. Hodges that state bans on same-sex marriage violate the Fourteenth Amendment, thus invalidating all remaining state same-sex marriage bans in the United States. Governor Walker said the ruling was a "grave mistake" and called for a federal constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage, "The only alternative left for the American people is to support an amendment to the U.S. Constitution to reaffirm the ability of the states to continue to define marriage."[47] Jerome E. Listecki, the Archbishop of Milwaukee, called it "a sad day for the sacrament of marriage". Karen Gotzler, the executive director of the Milwaukee LGBT Community Center, welcomed the court decision, "It's really a joyous day for us." Joseph Czarnezki, the Milwaukee County Clerk, said "We're expecting an influx of people, same-sex couples, who desire to get married. I've talked to people in the community who said they are specifically waiting for the Supreme Court ruling so that their marriage would be legal in all 50 states."[48]

Native American nations

Same-sex marriage is legal on the reservations of the Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin, which legalized same-sex marriage when the Ho-Chunk Nation Legislature voted 13–0 on June 5, 2017 to approve a bill allowing same-sex couples to marry,[49] the Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa, where state law governs marriage relations,[50] the Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin,[51] the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin,[52] which legalized on June 10, 2015, and the Stockbridge–Munsee Community, which legalized on February 22, 2016.[53] The Menominee Tribal Council voted 6–0 on November 3, 2016 to legalize same-sex marriage. The Tribal Code now reads "'Marriage' is a civil contract between two (2) persons, regardless of their sex, creating a union to the exclusion of all others." The tribal Licensing and Permit Department will issue a marriage license[lower-alpha 1] "upon receiving a completed application form from two unmarried persons, regardless of sex (or gender), and in the absence of any showing that the proposed marriage would be invalid under any provisions of this code."[54]

While there are no records of same-sex marriages as understood from a Western perspective being performed in Native American cultures, there is evidence for identities and behaviours that may be placed on the LGBT spectrum. Many of these cultures recognized two-spirit individuals who were born male but wore women's clothing and performed everyday household work and artistic handiwork which were regarded as belonging to the feminine sphere. This two-spirit status allowed for marriages between two biological males or two biological females to be performed among some of these tribes.[55] The Ho-Chunk people have traditionally recognized two-spirit people, known in their language as teją́čowįga (pronounced [tedʒãꜜtʃowĩga]). They were believed to have been blessed by the spirit of the Moon, and were "holy and highly respected for special gifts such as prophesy, healing, artistry, and excelling at women's tasks". Many teją́čowįga married cisgender men, without indication of polygyny.[55] Two-spirit people are known in the Ojibwe language as agokwe (pronounced [agoˈkʰwɛː]), or also as niizh manidoowag (pronounced [niːʒ manɪˈdoːˌwak]). Many agokwe were wives in polygnyous households.[56]

Demographics and marriage statistics

Data from the 2000 U.S. census showed that 8,232 same-sex couples were living in Wisconsin. By 2005, this had increased to 14,894 couples, likely attributed to same-sex couples' growing willingness to disclose their partnerships on government surveys. Same-sex couples lived in all counties of the state, and constituted 0.7% of coupled households and 0.4% of all households in the state. Most couples lived in Milwaukee, Dane and Waukesha counties, but the counties with the highest percentage of same-sex couples were Dane (0.80% of all county households) and Sawyer (0.78%). Same-sex partners in Wisconsin were on average younger than opposite-sex partners, and more likely to be employed. However, the average and median household incomes of same-sex couples were lower than different-sex couples, and same-sex couples were also far less likely to own a home than opposite-sex partners. 16% of same-sex couples in Wisconsin were raising children under the age of 18, with an estimated 3,783 children living in households headed by same-sex couples in 2005.[57]

The 2020 U.S. census showed that there were 8,310 married same-sex couple households (3,251 male couples and 5,059 female couples) and 7,800 unmarried same-sex couple households in Wisconsin.[58]

Public opinion

Views on same-sex unions in Wisconsin
Poll source Date(s)
administered		 Link  % support  % opposition  % no opinion
Marriage Civil union
Marquette University May 2014 [59] 49% 25% 18% -
Public Policy Polling April 2014 [60] 43% 28% 26% 3%
Marquette University October 2013 [61] 53% 24% 19% -
Public Policy Polling February 2013 [62] 39% 32% 27% 2%
Marquette University October 2012 [61] 44% 28% 23% -
Public Policy Polling July 2012 [63] 39% 30% 28% 4%
Public Policy Polling August 2011 [64] 34% 33% 31% 1%
Public opinion for same-sex marriage in Wisconsin
Poll source Date(s)
administered		 Link  % support  % opposition  % no opinion
Public Religion Research Institute March 11 – December 14, 2022 [65] 72% 26% 2%
Marquette University April 2022 [1] 72% 19% 9%
Public Religion Research Institute March 8 – November 9, 2021 [66] 73% 26% 1%
Public Religion Research Institute January 7 – December 20, 2020 [67] 71% 27% 2%
Public Religion Research Institute January 4 – December 30, 2017 [68] 66% 26% 8%
Public Religion Research Institute May 18, 2016 – January 10, 2017 [69] 63% 29% 8%
Public Religion Research Institute April 29, 2015 – January 7, 2016 [70] 55% 36% 8%
Marquette University October 2014 [71] 63% 30% 7%
Marquette University May 2014 [59] 55% 37% 6%
Public Policy Polling April 2014 [60] 47% 45% 8%
Public Policy Polling February 2013 [62] 44% 46% 10%
Public Policy Polling July 2012 [63] 43% 47% 10%
Public Policy Polling August 2011 [64] 39% 50% 11%
Public Policy Polling May 2011 [72] 42% 46% 12%

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Menominee: ni wāwīhtamatwan, pronounced [nɪ waːˈwiːhtʌˌmʌtwən]

References

  1. 1 2 Franklin, Charles (April 27, 2022). "New Survey By Marquette University Law School Poll Finds Wisconsin Democratic Primary For U.S. Senate Tightening, Kleefisch Leading Republican Gubernatorial Primary; Among Republicans, Those Least Confident In 2020 Election Are More Enthusiastic To Vote This Fall". Marquette University.
  2. 1 2 The Latest: Panel Votes to End Domestic Partner Registry
  3. ↑ Domestic Partnership
  4. ↑ Fact Sheet #145: Republicans Kill AB 104. Family Research Institute. May 1988. Retrieved November 10, 2014.
  5. 1 2 Rimmerman, Craig A. (2000). The Politics of Gay Rights. University of Chicago Press. p. 337. ISBN 9780226719986. Retrieved November 10, 2014.
  6. ↑ AB475 The Proposed Legislation
  7. ↑ AV0303 The Passed House
  8. ↑ SV0332 The Passed Senate
  9. ↑ AB 475 - Vetoed in Full Vetoed
  10. ↑ Assembly fails to override anti-gay-marriage bill Override Attempt
  11. ↑ Forster, Stacy (July 3, 2008). "Wisconsin gay couples who marry outside state could face penalty". Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel. Archived from the original on February 17, 2009. Retrieved December 22, 2018.
  12. ↑ Weisberg, Louis (September 4, 2013). "Prisoners of love". Wisconsin Gazette. Archived from the original on September 11, 2013. Retrieved December 22, 2018.
  13. ↑ Assembly Joint Resolution 66, Journal of the Wisconsin Assembly, March 5, 2004, p. 798.
  14. ↑ Assembly Joint Resolution 66, Journal of the Wisconsin Senate, March 11, 2004, p. 717. The final vote was taken shortly after midnight on March 12.
  15. ↑ Senate Joint Resolution 53, Journal of the Wisconsin Senate, Dec. 6, 2005, p. 488.
  16. ↑ Senate Joint Resolution 53, Journal of the Wisconsin Assembly, Feb. 28, 2006, p. 862
  17. ↑ "2005 Senate Joint Resolution 53". Docs.legis.wisconsin.gov. Retrieved December 2, 2013.
  18. ↑ Canvass Summary, Wisconsin State Elections Board, Fall General Election, November 7, 2006.
  19. ↑ "Wisconsin amendment supreme court". Wkbt.com. November 14, 2013. Retrieved December 2, 2013.
  20. ↑ "State to reevaluate gay marriage ban". Badger Herald. May 14, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2014.
  21. ↑ "Supreme Court accepts four new cases", Headlines Archive, Wisconsin Court System, May 21, 2009.
  22. ↑ Magnum, Christopher (November 3, 2009). "Wis. Supreme Court Hears Gay Marriage Case". The Advocate. Retrieved February 3, 2014.
  23. ↑ Marley, Patrick (November 3, 2009). "State Supreme Court hears arguments on gay marriage amendment". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Retrieved February 3, 2014.
  24. ↑ Foley, Ryan J. (June 30, 2010). "Wisconsin Supreme Court unanimously upholds gay marriage ban". Wisconsin State Journal. Retrieved March 12, 2014.
  25. ↑ Ksicinski, Paul (Attorney for Plaintiffs) (April 16, 2014). "Petition for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief, Halopka-Ivery v. Walker, No. 2014AP000839-OA". Wisconsin Supreme Court via Scribd. Retrieved May 14, 2014.
  26. ↑ "Wis. Supreme Court declines to hear same-sex marriage case". Lgbtqnation.com. May 27, 2014. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
  27. ↑ "Legal Marriage Court Cases — A Timeline". www.buddybuddy.com. Retrieved August 7, 2022.
  28. ↑ De Franco, Elaine M. (2001). "Choice of Law: Will a Wisconsin Court Recognize a Vermont Civil Union?". Marquette Law Review. 85: 261.
  29. ↑ Geidner, Chris (February 3, 2014). "ACLU Filing Lawsuit In Wisconsin Seeking Marriage Equality". Buzz Feed. Retrieved March 12, 2014.
  30. ↑ Johnson, Chris (February 3, 2014). "Wisconsin latest state to face marriage lawsuit". Washington Blade. Retrieved February 3, 2014.
  31. ↑ Wolf v. Walker, 14-cv-64-bbc, (W.D. Michigan June 6, 2014) p 3
  32. ↑ "Gay couples get licenses in 42 Wisconsin counties". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. June 9, 2014. Retrieved June 9, 2014.
  33. ↑ Johnson, M.L. (June 7, 2014). "Gay couples rush to marry at Wisconsin courthouses". AP News. Retrieved June 7, 2014.
  34. ↑ "First same-sex couples wed in Wisconsin after judge strikes down ban". Al Jazeera. June 6, 2014.
  35. ↑ Marley, Patrick; Ferguson, Dana (June 12, 2014). "Van Hollen: Clerks issuing licenses to gay couples could be charged". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Retrieved June 13, 2014.
  36. ↑ Crabb, Barbara (U.S. District Judge) (June 13, 2014). "Opinion and Order, Wolf v. Walker, No. 14-cv-64-bbc" (PDF). U.S. District Court for the Western District of Wisconsin. Scribd.com. PACER Document 134.
  37. ↑ "State appeals ruling allowing gay marriages". Post Crescent. AP. July 10, 2014. Retrieved July 10, 2014.
  38. ↑ Marley, Patrick (July 11, 2014). "Appeals court to fast track state's gay marriage case with Indiana's". Milwaukee Wisconsin Journal-Sentinel. Retrieved July 14, 2014.
  39. ↑ Johnson, Chris (September 4, 2014). "7th Circuit rules against marriage bans in Wisconsin, Indiana". Washington Blade. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
  40. ↑ Geidner, Chris (September 9, 2014). "Indiana, Wisconsin Officials Take Marriage Cases To Supreme Court". BuzzFeed News. Retrieved September 16, 2014.
  41. ↑ Stein, Jason (September 18, 2014). "Wisconsin's gay marriage ban to stay in place until U.S. Supreme Court rules". Milwaukee Wisconsin Journal-Sentinel. Retrieved September 18, 2014.
  42. ↑ Liptak, Adam (October 6, 2014). "Supreme Court Clears Way for Gay Marriage in 5 States". New York Times. Retrieved October 6, 2014.
  43. ↑ "Across the USA: Reaction to same-sex marriage decision". USA Today. October 6, 2014.
  44. ↑ October 6 2014 - Wisconsin Department of Justice - Office of the Attorney-General
  45. ↑ "7th Circuit lifts stays, ending Indiana, Wisconsin same-sex marriage bans". LGBTQ Nation. October 7, 2014. Retrieved October 11, 2014.
  46. ↑ Meyer, Holly (October 7, 2014). "Same-sex couples can marry in the Fox Valley". Appleton Post-Crescent. Retrieved October 11, 2014.
  47. ↑ "Wisconsin same-sex marriage supporters & opponents react". FOX11. June 27, 2015. Archived from the original on June 28, 2015.
  48. ↑ Seigle, Max (June 26, 2015). "Wisconsin reaction to U.S. Supreme Court gay marriage ruling mixed". WISN. Archived from the original on October 1, 2020.
  49. ↑ Luchterhand, Ken. "Same-sex marriage provisions approved by Ho-Chunk Legislature". Hocak Worak. Archived from the original on July 8, 2017. Retrieved July 8, 2017.
  50. ↑ "Tribal Code of the Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa, Chapter 30: Domestic Relations" (PDF). Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 5, 2014. Retrieved August 16, 2022.
  51. ↑ "Tribal Ordinance 16-28, Amendment to the Code of Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin, Chapter 409-Marriage" (PDF). ecode360.com. Retrieved August 15, 2022.
  52. ↑ Schneider, Doug (May 28, 2015). "Oneida Tribe legalizing same-sex marriage". Green Bay Press Gazette.
  53. ↑ "Chapter 61 Stockbridge-Munsee Tribal Law Marriage" (PDF). Retrieved August 15, 2022.
  54. ↑ "Menominee Dictionary" (PDF). www.menomineelanguage.com. Retrieved August 15, 2022.
  55. 1 2 Sabine Lang (1998). Men as women, women as men: changing gender in Native American cultures. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-74701-2.
  56. ↑ O'Brien, Jodi (2009). Encyclopedia of Gender and Society. Vol. 1. SAGE. p. 64. ISBN 978-1412909167.
  57. ↑ "Census Snapshot" (PDF). Williams Institute. Retrieved August 30, 2022.
  58. ↑ "PCT1405 Couple Households, By Type". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved December 11, 2023.
  59. 1 2 New Marquette Law School Poll finds Wisconsin governor’s race tied
  60. 1 2 "Clinton leads Ryan, Walker in Wisconsin" (PDF). April 24, 2014. Retrieved April 24, 2014.
  61. 1 2 "Marquette Law School Poll shows Walker in tight race with Burke for Wisconsin governor in 2014". Law.marquette.edu. October 29, 2013. Retrieved December 2, 2013.
  62. 1 2 "Clinton would beat Walker, Ryan in Wisconsin in 2016" (PDF). Retrieved December 2, 2013.
  63. 1 2 "Wisconsin narrowly opposes gay marriage" (PDF). Retrieved December 2, 2013.
  64. 1 2 "WI bullish on Packers, hate Favre, want Dem-controlled Sen" (PDF). Retrieved December 2, 2013.
  65. ↑ PRRI American Values Atlas 2022: Wisconsin
  66. ↑ PRRI American Values Atlas 2021: Wisconsin
  67. ↑ PRRI American Values Atlas 2020: Wisconsin
  68. ↑ PRRI American Values Atlas 2017: Wisconsin
  69. ↑ PRRI American Values Atlas 2016: Wisconsin
  70. ↑ PRRI American Values Atlas 2015: Wisconsin
  71. ↑ "Marquette University Law School Poll". Marquette University. October 24, 2014.
  72. ↑ "Wisconsin Survey Results" (PDF). May 19–22, 2011. Retrieved December 2, 2013.
  • Wolf v. Walker, United States District Court for the Western District of Wisconsin, June 6, 2014: Opinion and Order
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