Scythian
The approximate distribution of Eastern Iranic languages and peoples in 100 BC appears in green.
Native toSarmatia, Scythia, Sistan, Scythia Minor, Alania
RegionCentral Asia, West Asia, Eastern Europe
EthnicityScythians, Sarmatians, and Alans
EraClassical antiquity, late antiquity

Middle Ages (Alanian)

Modern era (Ossetian)
Dialects
Language codes
ISO 639-3Variously:
xsc – Scythian
xln – Alanian
oos – Old Ossetian
xsc Scythian
 xln Alanian
 oos Old Ossetian
Glottologoldo1234  Old Ossetic

The Scythian languages (/ˈsɪθiən/ or /ˈsɪðiən/ or /ˈskɪθiən/) are a group of Eastern Iranic languages of the classical and late antique period (the Middle Iranic period), spoken in a vast region of Eurasia by the populations belonging to the Scythian cultures and their descendants. The dominant ethnic groups among the Scythian-speakers were nomadic pastoralists of Central Asia and the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Fragments of their speech known from inscriptions and words quoted in ancient authors as well as analysis of their names indicate that it was an Indo-European language, more specifically from the Iranic group of Indo-Iranic languages.

Most of the Scythian languages eventually became extinct, except for modern Ossetian (which descends from the Alanian dialect of Scytho-Sarmatian), Wakhi (which descends from the Khotanese and Tumshuqese forms of Scytho-Khotanese), and Yaghnobi (which descends from Sogdian). Alexander Lubotsky summarizes the known linguistic landscape as follows:[1]

Unfortunately, we know next to nothing about the Scythian of that period [Old Iranian] – we have only a couple of personal and tribal names in Greek and Persian sources at our disposal – and cannot even determine with any degree of certainty whether it was a single language.

Classification

Ossetian is an Eastern Iranic language. The vast majority of Scythological scholars agree in considering the Scythian languages a part of the Eastern Iranic languages too. This relies principally on the fact that the Greek inscriptions of the Northern Black Sea Coast contain several hundreds of Sarmatian names showing a close affinity to the Ossetian language.[2][3]

Some scholars detect a division of Scythian into two dialects: a western, more conservative dialect, and an eastern, more innovative one.[4] The Scythian languages may have formed a dialect continuum:

  • Alanian languages or Scytho-Sarmatian in the west: were spoken by people originally of Iranic stock from the 8th and 7th century BC onwards in the area of Ukraine, Southern Russia and Kazakhstan.
    • Modern Ossetian survives as a continuation of the language family possibly represented by Scytho-Sarmatian inscriptions, although the Scytho-Sarmatian language family "does not simply represent the same [Ossetian] language" at an earlier date.
A document from Khotan written in Khotanese Saka, part of the Eastern Iranic branch of the Indo-European languages, listing the animals of the Chinese zodiac in the cycle of predictions for people born in that year; ink on paper, early 9th century

It is highly probable that already in the Old Iranic period there were some eastern Scythian dialects which gave rise to ancestor(s) of Sogdian language and Yaghnobi, although data required to test this hypothesis is presently lacking.[6]

The Scythian languages shared some features with other Eastern Iranic languages, such as the use of the suffix -ta to denote the plural form, which is also present in Sogdian, Chorasmian, Ossetian, and Yaghnobi.[7]

Phonology

The Pontic Scythian language possessed the following phonemes:[8]

Vowels
Front Back
Close iiː uuː
Mid eː oː
Open a aː
Consonants
Labial Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Labiovelar Glottal
Plosive pb td (earliest) kɡ
Affricate t͡s t͡ʃd͡ʒ
Fricative f θð (earlier) sz ʃʒ x xʷ h
Sonorant mw l (later) nr j (ŋ)

The western dialects of the Scythian languages had experienced an evolution of the Proto-Iranic sound /d/ into the Proto-Scythian sound /ð/, which in the Cimmerian and Pontic dialects of Scythian became the sound /l/. Scythian shares the evolution of Proto-Iranic sound /d/ into /ð/ with all Eastern Iranic languages with the exception of Ossetian, Yaghnobi, and Ishkashimi; and the later evolution of /ð/ into /l/ is also present in several Eastern Iranic languages such as Bactrian, Pashto, Munjani, and Yidgha.[7][8]

History

Early Eastern Iranic peoples originated in the Yaz culture (ca. 1500–1100 BC) in Central Asia.[9] The Scythians migrated from Central Asia toward Eastern Europe in the 8th and 7th century BC, occupying today's Southern Russia and Ukraine and the Carpathian Basin and parts of Moldova and Dobruja. They disappeared from history after the Hunnish invasion of Europe in the 5th century AD, and Turkic (Avar, Batsange, etc.) and Slavic peoples probably assimilated most people speaking Scythian. However, in the Caucasus, the Ossetian language belonging to the Scythian linguistic continuum remains in use today, while in Central Asia, some languages belonging to Eastern Iranic group are still spoken, namely Pashto, Pamir languages and Yaghnobi.

Corpus

Inscriptions

Some scholars ascribe certain inscribed objects found in the Carpathian Basin and in Central Asia to the Scythians, but the interpretation of these inscriptions remains disputed (given that nobody has definitively identified the alphabet or translated the content).

Saqqez inscription

An inscription from Saqqez, dating from the Scythian presence in Western Asia, and written in the Hieroglyphic Luwian script, may represent Scythian:[10]

Inscription of Saqqez
Line Phonetic transliteration Scythian transliteration English translation
1 pa-tì-na-sa-nà tà-pá wá-s₆-na-m₅ XL was-was-ki XXX ár-s-tí-m₅ ś₃-kar-kar (HA) har-s₆-ta₅ LUGAL patinasana tapa. vasnam: 40 vasaka 30 arzatam šikar. UTA harsta XŠAYAI. Delivered dish. Value: 40 calves 30 silver šiqlu. And it was presented to the king.
2 par-tì-ta₅-wa₅ ki-ś₃-a₄-á KUR-u-pa-ti QU-wa-a₅ Partitava xšaya DAHYUupati xva- King Partitavas, the masters of the land pro-
3 i₅-pa-ś₂-a-m₂ ipašyam -perty

The king Partitava mentioned in this inscription is the same individual as the Scythian king Pṛtatavah, whose name is attested as Bartatua in Assyrian records and as Protothyēs in Greek records.[11]

Issyk inscription

The Issyk inscription is not yet certainly deciphered, and is probably in a Scythian dialect, constituting one of very few autochthonous epigraphic traces of that language. János Harmatta, using the Kharoṣṭhī script, identified the language as a Khotanese Saka dialect spoken by the Kushans, tentatively translating:[12]

Issyk inscription
Line Transliteration English translation
1 za(ṃ)-ri ko-la(ṃ) mi(ṃ)-vaṃ vaṃ-va pa-zaṃ pa-na de-ka mi(ṃ)-ri-to The vessel should hold wine of grapes, added cooked food, so much, to the mortal,
2 ña-ka mi pa-zaṃ vaṃ-va va-za(ṃ)-na vaṃ. then added cooked fresh butter on

Personal names

The primary sources for Scythian words remain the Scythian toponyms, tribal names, and numerous personal names in the ancient Greek texts and in the Greek inscriptions found in the Greek colonies on the Northern Black Sea Coast. These names suggest that the Sarmatian language had close similarities to modern Ossetian.[13]

Recorded Scythian personal names include:

NameAttested formsNotes
*Ariyapaiϑah Ancient Greek: Αριαπειθης, romanized: Ariapeithēs Composed of:[14][15][16][17]
*Ariya-, meaning "Aryan" and "Iranic."
*paiϑah-, meaning "decoration" and "adornment." Compare with Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬉𐬯𐬀 (paēsa).
*Hiϑāmϑrauša Ancient Greek: Ιδανθυρσος, romanized: Idanthursos Meaning "prospering the ally." Composed of:[18]
a cognate of Avestan 𐬵𐬌𐬚𐬄𐬨 (hiϑąm), meaning "companion."
a cognate of Avestan 𐬚𐬭𐬀𐬊𐬱 (ϑraoš-), meaning "to prosper."
*Hupāyā Ancient Greek: Οποιη, romanized: Opoiē Composed of:[15]
*hu-, "good."
*pāyā-, "protection"; an abstraction of the root *pā-, "to protect."
*Pālaka Ancient Greek: Παλακος, romanized: Palakos From an earlier form *Pāδaka after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "tall-legged" and "long-legged." Composed of:[19][20]
*pāla-, "foot," from earlier *pāδa-.
*-ka, hypocoristic suffix.
*Pṛtatavah Akkadian: 𒁹𒁇𒋫𒌅𒀀, romanized: Bartatua or Partatua[21]
Ancient Greek: Προτοθυης, romanized: Protothuēs		 Means "who is mighty in battle." Composed of:[22][23][24]
*pṛta- "battle." Compare with Avestan 𐬞𐬆𐬱𐬀𐬥𐬀 (pəšana) and Vedic Sanskrit पृत् (pṛt-), both meaning "battle."
*-tavah- "strength, power." Compare with Avestan 𐬙𐬀𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬵 (-tauuah-).
*Pr̥ϑutavā Composed of:[25][26]
*pr̥ϑu- "wide, broad." Compare with Avestan 𐬞𐬆𐬭𐬆𐬚𐬎 (pərᵊϑu-).
*-tavah- "strength, power." Compare with Avestan 𐬙𐬀𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬵 (-tauuah-).
*Šaitafarna Ancient Greek: Σαιταφαρνος, romanized: Saitapharnos or Ancient Greek: Σαιταφαρνης, romanized: Saitapharnēs From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšaitafarna,[27] possibly meaning "with a bright farna," itself composed of:[28]
*xšaita-, "brilliant."
*-farna, "khvarenah."
*Šaϑraka Ancient Greek: Σατρακης, romanized: Satrakēs From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšaϑraka,[27] itself composed of:[29]
*xšaϑra-, "power."
*-ka, hypocoristic suffix.

Cognate with Ossetian Æхсæртæг (Æxsærtæg)[30] and Æхсæртæггатӕ (Æxsærtæggatæ).[31]

*Šīraka Ancient Greek: Σιρακης, romanized: Sirakēs From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšīraka,[27] possibly meaning "milk-consumer," itself composed of:[29]
*xšīra-, "milk."
*-ka, hypocoristic suffix.
*Skilura Ancient Greek: Σκιλουρος, romanized: Skilouros From an earlier form *Skiδura after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "sharp" and "victorious."[19]
*Skula Ancient Greek: Σκυλης, romanized: Skulēs From the Scythian endonym *Skula, itself a later dialectal form of *Skuδa resulting from a sound change from /δ/ to /l/.[32]
*Spakāya Akkadian: 𒁹𒅖𒉺𒅗𒀀𒀀, romanized: Išpakāya[33] Hypocoristic derivation from the word *spaka, meaning "dog."[34][35][16]
*Spargapis Ancient Greek: Σπαργαπισης, romanized: Spargapisēs Composed of:[15][16][36][17]
*sparga- "scion" and "descendant." Compare with Avestan 𐬯𐬞𐬀𐬭𐬆𐬖𐬀 (sparᵊγa).
*pis- "decoration" and "adornment." Compare with Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬉𐬯𐬀 (paēsa).

*Spargapis and *Spargapaiϑah are variants of the same name.[37][15][36]

*Spargapaiϑah Ancient Greek: Σπαργαπειθης, romanized: Spargapeithēs Composed of:[15][36][16][17]
*sparga- "scion" and "descendant." Compare with Avestan 𐬯𐬞𐬀𐬭𐬆𐬖𐬀 (sparᵊγa).
*paiϑah- "decoration" and "adornment." Compare with Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬉𐬯𐬀 (paēsa).

*Spargapaiϑah and *Spargapis are variants of the same name.[37][15][36]

*Tigratavā Ancient Greek: Τιργαταω, romanized: Tirgataō Means "with the strength of an arrow." Composed of:[38][15]
*tigra- "arrow." Compare with Avestan 𐬙𐬌𐬖𐬭𐬌 (tiγri-), "arrow."
*-tavah- "strength, power." Compare with Avestan 𐬙𐬀𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬵 (-tauuah-).
*Taumuriya Ancient Greek: Τομυρις, romanized: Tomuris Derived from a cognate of Avestan 𐬙𐬀𐬊𐬑𐬨𐬀𐬥 (taoxman) and Old Persian 𐎫𐎢𐎶𐎠 (taumā), meaning "seed," "germ," and "kinship."[15]
*Uxtamazatā Ancient Greek: Οκταμασαδης, romanized: Oktamasadēs Means "possessing greatness through his words." Composed of:[15]
*uxta-, "word." Compare with Avestan 𐬎𐬑𐬙𐬀 (uxta), "spoken," and 𐬎𐬑𐬜𐬀 (uxδa), "word."
*-mazatā-, "great."
*Varika Ancient Greek: Ορικος, romanized: Orikos Hypocorostic derivation from the word *vari-, meaning "chest armour, armour." Compare with Avestan 𐬬𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌 (vaⁱri-), 𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬭𐬌 (uuari-) "chest armour."[15]

Tribal names

Recorded Scythian tribal names include:

NameAttested formsNotes
*Haxāϑrauša Ancient Greek: Αγαϑυρσοι, romanized: Agathursoi Means "prospering the friend/socius." Composed of:[18]
a cognate of Old Persian 𐏃𐎧𐎠 (haxā-), meaning "friend."
a cognate of Avestan 𐬚𐬭𐬀𐬊𐬱 (ϑraoš-), meaning "to prosper."
*Šīraka Ancient Greek: Σιρακες, romanized: Sirakes From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšīraka,[27] possibly meaning "milk-consumer," itself composed of:[29]
*xšīra-, "milk."
*-ka, hypocoristic suffix.
*Skuδa[39][40] Akkadian: 𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀, romanized: Iškuzaya
𒊍𒄖𒍝𒀀𒀀 (Asguzaya)
𒊍𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀 (Askuzaya)
𒀾𒄖𒍝𒀀𒀀 (Ašguzaya)

Ancient Greek: Σκυθαι, romanized: Skuthai

 *Skuδa, the Scythian endonym,[39][40]

From the Proto-Indo-European root skewd-, itself meaning lit. 'shooter, archer', whence also English "shoot".[41]

*Skula Ancient Greek: Σκωλοτοι, romanized: Skōlotoi[42][8] Later form of *Skuδa resulting from the evolution of Proto-Scythian /δ/ into Scythian /l/.[39]
*Paralāta Ancient Greek: Παραλαται, romanized: Paralatai[42][8] Cognate with Young Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬭𐬀𐬜𐬁𐬙𐬀‎ (Paraδāta), meaning "placed at the front."[16]

Place names

Some scholars believe that many toponyms and hydronyms of the Russian and Ukrainian steppe have Scythian links. For example, Vasmer associates the name of the river Don with an assumed/reconstructed unattested Scythian word *dānu "water, river", and with Avestan dānu-, Pashto dand and Ossetian don.[43] The river names Don, Donets, Dnieper, Danube, and Dniester, and lake Donuzlav (the deepest one in Crimea) may also belong with the same word-group.[44]

Recorded Scythian place names include:

NameAttested formsNotes
*Baurustāna Ancient Greek: Βορυσθενης, romanized: Borusthenēs Means "place of beavers." Composed of:[45]
*bauru- "beaver." Cognate of:
  • Avestan 𐬠𐬀𐬡𐬭𐬀 (baβra) and 𐬠𐬀𐬡𐬭𐬌‎ (baβri), meaning "beaver"
  • Sanskrit बभ्रु (babhrú) and बभ्रुक​ (bábhruka), meaning "mongoose"
*stāna "space."
*Dānu Ancient Greek: Ταναις, romanized: Tanais Means "river."[15]
*Pantikapa Ancient Greek: Παντικαπαιον, romanized: Pantikapaion Means "fish-path." Composed of:[46]
*panti-, "path." Compare with Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬧‎𐬙𐬃‎ (paṇ‎tā̊), "path."
*kapa-, "fish." Compare with Khotanese Saka kavā and Ossetian Кӕф kæf.
*Rahā Ancient Greek: Ρα, romanized: Rha Means "wetness." Compare with Avestan 𐬭𐬀𐬢𐬵𐬁 (raŋhā) and Vedic Sanskrit रसा (rasā́).[47]
*Varu Ancient Greek: Οαρος, romanized: Oaros Means "broad."[48]

Herodotus' Scythian etymologies

The Greek historian Herodotus provides another source of Scythian; he reports that the Scythians called the Amazons Oiorpata, and explains the name as a compound of oior, meaning "man", and pata, meaning "to kill" (Hist. 4,110).

  • Most scholars associate oior "man" with Avestan vīra- "man, hero", Sanskrit vīra-, Latin vir (gen. virī) "man, hero, husband",[49] PIE *wiHrós. Various explanations account for pata "kill":
    1. Persian pat- "(to) kill", patxuste "killed";[50]
    2. Sogdian pt- "(to) kill", ptgawsty "killed";[51]
    3. Ossetian fædyn "cleave", Sanskrit pātayati "fell", PIE *peth₂- "fall".[52]
    4. Avestan paiti- "lord", Sanskrit páti, PIE *pótis, cf. Lat. potestate (i.e. "man-ruler");[53]
    5. Ossetian maryn "kill", Pashto mrəl, Sanskrit mārayati, PIE *mer- "die" (confusion of Greek Μ and Π);[54]
  • Alternatively, one scholar suggests Iranic aiwa- "one" + warah- "breast",[55] the Amazons believed to have removed a breast to aid drawing a bow, according to some ancient folklorists, and as reflected in Greek folk-etymology: a- (privative) + mazos, "without breast".

Elsewhere Herodotus explains the name of the mythical one-eyed tribe Arimaspoi as a compound of the Scythian words arima, meaning "one", and spu, meaning "eye" (Hist. 4,27).

  • Some scholars connect arima "one" with Ossetian ærmæst "only", Avestic airime "quiet", Greek erēmos "empty", PIE *h₁(e)rh₁mo-?, and spu "eye" with Avestic spas- "foretell", Sanskrit spaś-, PIE *speḱ- "see".[56]
  • However, Iranic usually expresses "one" and "eye" with words like aiwa- and čašman- (Ossetian īw and cæst).
  • Other scholars reject Herodotus' etymology and derive the ethnonym Arimaspoi from Iranic aspa- "horse" instead.[57]
  • Or the first part of the name may reflect something like Iranic raiwant- "rich", cf. Ossetian riwæ "rich".[58]

Scythian theonyms

NameAttested formsNotes
*Tapatī́ Ancient Greek: Ταβιτι, romanized: Tabiti Means “the Burning One” or “the Flaming One.”[59][60]

Related to:[61][62][63]

Avestan 𐬙𐬁𐬞𐬀𐬌𐬌𐬈𐬌𐬙𐬌‎ (tāpaiieⁱti), “to warm.”
Sanskrit तापयति (tapayati), “to heat” and “to warm”; theonym तपती (Tapatī); तपस् (tápas)
Latin tepeo.
*Api Ancient Greek: Απι, romanized: Api
and Απια, romanized: Apia
 Related to Avestan 𐬀𐬞𐬌 (api), "water."[62]
*Targī̆tavah Ancient Greek: Ταργιταος, romanized: Targitaos Means "possessing the might of the goddess Tarkā." Composed of:[64]
*Targiya, "of the goddess Tarkā."
*-tavah- "strength, power." Compare with Avestan 𐬙𐬀𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬵 (-tauuah-).
Ancient Greek: Αρτιμπασα, romanized: Artimpasa Composed of:[62]
Iranic theonym *Arti
a term related to *paya, "pasture" and *pati, "lord."
*Apatura Ancient Greek: Απατουρος, romanized: Apatouros Means "swift water." Composed of:[65]
*ap-, "water." Related to Avestan 𐬀𐬞 (ap-), "water."
*tura-, "quick" or "mighty."
*Gaiϑāsūra Ancient Greek: Γοιτοσυρος, romanized: Goitosuros Composed of:[16]
*gaiϑā, "herd" and "possessions." Cognate of 𐬔𐬀𐬊𐬌𐬌𐬀𐬊𐬌𐬙𐬌𐬱 (gaoiiaoⁱtiš), "cow pasture."[66]
*sūra, "strong" and "mighty."
Ancient Greek: Θαγιμασαδας, romanized: Thagimasadas
and Θαμιμασαδας, romanized: Thamimasadas
 Composed of:
a possible cognate of Avestan 𐬚𐬡𐬁𐬴𐬀 (ϑβāṣ̌a), "firmament," and Vedic Sanskrit त्वक्ष् (tvakṣ-) or तक्ष् (takṣ-), "to create by putting into motion."
mazatā, meaning "great."[15]
*Lipoxšaya Ancient Greek: Λιποξαις, romanized: Lipoxais From an earlier form *Δipoxšaya after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/.

Means "king of radiance" and "king of heaven." Composed of:[67]

*lipa, from earlier *δipa, "to be bright" as well as "sky" and "heaven."
*-xšaya, "ruler."
*R̥buxšaya Ancient Greek: Ἀρποξαις, romanized: Arpoxais Means "king of the airspace." Composed of:[68]
*r̥bu-, a cognate of Sanskrit ऋभु (Ṛbhú), the name of a group of deities of the airspace.
*-xšaya, "ruler."
*Kolaxšaya Ancient Greek: Κολαξαις, romanized: Kolaxais

Latin: Colaxes

 From an earlier form *Koδaxšaya after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/.
Means "axe-wielding king," where the axe also has the meaning of "sceptre," as well as "blacksmith king," in the sense of "ruling king of the lower world." Composed of:[69]
*kola, from earlier *koδa, "axe."
*-xšaya, "ruler."

Pliny the Elder

Pliny the Elder's Natural History (AD 77–79) derives the name of the Caucasus from the Scythian kroy-khasis = ice-shining, white with snow (cf. Greek cryos = ice-cold).

Aristophanes

In the comedy works of Aristophanes, the dialects of various Greek people are accurately imitated. In his Thesmophoriazusae, a Scythian archer (a member of a police force in Athens) speaks broken Greek, consistently omitting the final -s (-ς) and -n (ν), using the lenis in place of the aspirate, and once using ks (ξ) in place of s (sigma); these may be used to elucidate the Scythian languages.[70]

Alanian

The Alanian language, as spoken by the Alans from about the 5th to the 11th centuries AD, formed a dialect directly descended from the earlier Scytho-Sarmatian languages, and forming in its turn the ancestor of the Ossetian language. Byzantine Greek authors recorded only a few fragments of this language.[71]

Unlike the Pontic Scythian language, Ossetian did not experience the evolution of the Proto-Scythian sound /d/ to /δ/ and then /l/, although the sound /d/ did evolve into /δ/ at the beginning of Ossetian words.[7]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Lubotsky 2002, p. 190.
  2. ↑ Compare L. Zgusta, Die griechischen Personennamen griechischer Städte der nördlichen Schwarzmeerküste [The Greek personal names of the Greek cities of the northern Black Sea coast], 1955.
  3. ↑ Witzel, Michael (2001). "Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 7 (3): 1–115. doi:10.11588/ejvs.2001.3.830.
  4. ↑ E.g. Harmatta 1970.
  5. ↑ Schmitt, Rüdiger (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, Reichert, 1989.
  6. ↑ Novák 2013, p. 11.
  7. 1 2 3 Ivantchik 1999a, p. 156-158.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Novák 2013, p. 10.
  9. ↑ J.P.Mallory (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Dearborn. p. 310. ISBN 9781884964985.
  10. ↑ Harmatta 1999, p. 124.
  11. ↑ Harmatta 1999, p. 123.
  12. ↑ Harmatta 1992, p. 412.
  13. ↑ Lincoln, Bruce (2014). "Once again 'the Scythian' myth of origins (Herodotus 4.5–10)". Nordlit. 33 (33): 19–34. doi:10.7557/13.3188.
  14. ↑ Hinz 1975, p. 40.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Schmitt 2003.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Schmitt 2018a.
  17. 1 2 3 Schmitt 2011.
  18. 1 2 Schwartz & Manaster Ramer 2019, p. 359-360.
  19. 1 2 Kullanda & Raevskiy 2004, p. 93.
  20. ↑ Tokhtasyev 2005, p. 88.
  21. ↑ Ivantchik 1999b, p. 508-509: "Though Madyes himself is not mentioned in Akkadian texts, his father, the Scythian king Par-ta-tu-a, whose identification with Προτοθύης of Herodotus is certain."
  22. ↑ Bukharin 2011, p. 63.
  23. ↑ Kullanda & Raevskiy 2004, p. 94.
  24. ↑ Melikov 2016, p. 78-80.
  25. ↑ Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). "PROTOTHYES". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  26. ↑ Bukharin 2011.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Kullanda 2014, p. 81.
  28. ↑ Bukharin 2013, p. 273-274.
  29. 1 2 3 Bukharin 2013, p. 270-271.
  30. ↑ Alemany 2006, p. 33.
  31. ↑ Ivantchik 2005, p. 183.
  32. ↑ Ivantchik 2018.
  33. ↑ "Išpakaia [CHIEFTAIN OF THE SCYTHIANS] (RN)". Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus. University of Pennsylvania.
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  35. ↑ Schmitt 2009, p. 93–94.
  36. 1 2 3 4 Schmitt 2018b.
  37. 1 2 Hinz 1975, p. 226.
  38. ↑ Mayor, Adrienne (2014). The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World. Princeton, United States: Princeton University Press. pp. 370–371. ISBN 978-0-691-14720-8.
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  40. 1 2 Tokhtasyev 2005b, p. 296.
  41. ↑ Szemerényi 1980, p. 20-21.
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  44. ↑ Kretschmer, Paul (1935). "Zum Balkan-Skythischen". Glotta. 24 (1–2): 1–56 [7–56]. JSTOR 40265408.
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  46. ↑ Diakonoff, I. M. (1985). "Media". In Gershevitch, Ilya (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2.
  47. ↑ Brunner, C. J. (1986). "ARANG". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 13 August 2022. Middle Persian Arang/Arag renders Avestan Raŋhā, which is cognate with the Scythian name Rhâ (*Rahā) transmitted by Ptolemy
  48. ↑ Harmatta 1999, p. 129.
  49. ↑ "Vir – the Latin Dictionary".
  50. ↑ Gharib, B. (1995). Sogdian Dictionary, Sogdian-Persian-English. Tehran, Iran: Farhangan Publications. p. 376. ISBN 964-5558-06-9.
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  53. ↑ Vasmer, Die Iranier in Südrußland, 1923, 15.
  54. ↑ V.I. Abaev, Osetinskij jazyk i fol’klor, Moscow / Leningrad 1949, vol. 1, 172, 176, 188.
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  57. ↑ W. Tomaschek, "Kritik der ältesten Nachrichten über den skythischen Norden", Sitzungsberichte der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 116 (1888), 715–780, here: 761; K. Müllenhoff, Deutsche Altertumskunde, Berlin 1893, vol. 3, 305–306; R. Grousset, L’empire des steppes, Paris 1941, 37 n. 3; I. Lebedensky, Les Scythes. La civilisation des steppes (VIIe-IIIe siècles av. J.-C.), Paris 2001, 93.
  58. ↑ Hinge 2005, pp. 89–94
  59. ↑ West, Martin Litchfield (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-199-28075-9.
  60. ↑ Jones, Lindsay (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 12. Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 8205–8208.
  61. ↑ Cheung, Johnny (2007). Etymological Dictionary of the Iranian Verb. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 378–379. ISBN 978-9-004-15496-4.
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  63. ↑ Raevskiy 1993, p. 17-18.
  64. ↑ Tokhtasyev 2013.
  65. ↑ Ustinova 1999, p. 29-66.
  66. ↑ Herzfeld, Ernst (1947). Zoroaster and His World. Vol. 2. Princeton University Press. p. 516.
  67. ↑ Bukharin 2013, p. 29-31.
  68. ↑ Bukharin 2013, p. 31-32.
  69. ↑ Bukharin 2013, p. 48-52.
  70. ↑ Donaldson, John William (1844). Varronianus: A Critical and Historical Introduction to the Philological Study of the Latin Language. J. and J. J. Deighton. p. 32.
  71. ↑ Ladislav Zgusta, "The old Ossetian Inscription from the River Zelenčuk" (Veröffentlichungen der Iranischen Kommission = Sitzungsberichte der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophisch-historische Klasse 486) Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1987. ISBN 3-7001-0994-6 in Kim, op.cit., 54.

Bibliography

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