Golden Age of Hinduism

See also Gupta rule and Gupta and Pallava period

The "Golden Age of Hinduism"^[6] (ca. 320-650 CE^[6]) flourished during the Gupta Empire^[7] (320 to 550 CE) until the fall of the Harsha^[7] (606 to 647 CE). During this period, power was centralized, along with a growth of long-distance trade, standardization of legal procedures, and a general spread of literacy.^[7] Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but Shrauta Hinduism was rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta dynasty.^[8] The position of the Brahmans was reinforced^[7] and the first Hindu temples emerged during the late Gupta age.^[7] The Mahābhārata, which probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period (c. 4th century),^[9] already mentions "ēkadaṇḍi" and "tridaṇḍi".^[10]

Wandering Ēkadaṇḍi ascetics

Dandi Sanyasi, a Hindu ascetic, in Eastern Bengal in the 1860s

The Ēkadaṇḍis existed in the Tamil speaking area during the southern-Indian Pandyan dynasty (3rd century BCE - 16th century CE) and the Southern-Indian Pallava dynasty (2nd - 9th centuries CE). Being wandering monastics, they were not settled in the brahmadeyas or settlement areas for Brahmins. There existed tax free bhiksha-bogams for feeding the Ēkadaṇḍi ascetics in the ancient Tamil speaking territory.^[11]

Ēkadaṇḍis and Tridandis were also active in Eastern India, and appear to have existed there during the Northern-Indian Gupta Empire (320 to 550 CE ).^[12]

According to R. Tirumalai, "There appears to have been no sectarian segregation of the Shaiva (Ēkadaṇḍi) and Srivaishnava (Tridandi Sannyāsins)".^[13]

Professor Kiyokazu Okita and Indologist B. N. K. Sharma says, Sannyasis in the lineage of Advaita of Adi Shankara and the Sannyasis in the lineage of Dvaita of Madhvacharya are all Ēkadaṇḍis.^[14]

Late-Classical Hinduism

See also Late-Classical Age and Hinduism Middle Ages

After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralized in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vassal states":^[16] in the east the Pala Empire^[16] (770-1125 CE^[16]), in the west and north the Gurjara-Pratihara^[16] (7th-10th century^[16]), in the southwest the Rashtrakuta dynasty^[16] (752-973^[16]), in the Deccan the Chalukya dynasty^[16] (7th-8th century^[16]), and in the south the Pallava dynasty^[16] (7th-9th century^[16]) and the Chola dynasty^[16] (9th century^[16]).

The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",^[16] as reflected in the Tantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.^[17]

The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalization of religiosity, and religious rivalry.^{[18][note 3]} Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"^[18] was diminished.^[18] Rural and devotional movements arose, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra,^[18] though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development".^[18] Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords.^[18] Buddhism lost its position, and began to disappear in India.^[18]

Establishment

H.H. Jagadguru Swami Nischalananda Saraswati, The Shankaracharya of Puri

Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of Shiva,^{[web 1]} established the Daśanāmi Sampradaya, organizing a section of the Ēkadaṇḍi monastics under an umbrella grouping of ten names.^{[web 1]} Several other Hindu monastic and Ēkadaṇḍi traditions remained outside the organization of the Dasanāmis.^[20][21][22]

Adi Shankara organized the Hindu monastics of these ten sects or names under four maṭhas or monasteries, with headquarters at Dvārakā in the west, Jagannathadham Puri in the east, Sringeri in the south and Badrikashrama in the north.^{[web 1]} Each maṭha was headed by one of his four main disciples, who each continued the Vedanta Sampradaya.

Monastics of these ten orders differ in part in their beliefs and practices, and a section of them is not considered to be restricted to specific changes made by Shankara. While the Dasanāmis associated with the Shankara maṭhas follow the procedures enumerated by Adi Śankara, some of these orders remained partly or fully independent in their belief and practices; and outside the official control of the Shankara maṭhas.

The association of the Dasanāmis with the Smarta tradition or Advaita Vedānta is not all-embracing. One example is the Kriyā Yoga tradition that considers itself eclectic (see: Eclecticism), with ancient^{[web 2]} unchangeable beliefs, and outside the ambit of differences in the understanding of Vedanta. Other examples are the Tantric Avadhūta Sampradāyas and Ekadaṇḍi sannyāsa traditions outside the control of the Shankara maṭhas^[22] The Dasanāmis or Ēkadaṇḍis also founded, and continue to found or affiliate themselves with, maṭhas, ashrams and temples outside the control of the Shankara maṭhas.^{[web 2][web 3]}

The Advaita Sampradāya is not a Shaiva sect,^{[web 1][23]} despite the historical links with Shaivism:

Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they advocate worship of Siva and Visnu equally with that of the other deities of Hinduism, like Sakti, Ganapati and others.^{[web 1]}

Nevertheless, contemporary Shankaracaryas have more influence among Saiva communities than among Vaisnava communities.^{[web 1]} The greatest influence of the gurus of the Advaita tradition has been among followers of the Smartha tradition, who integrate the domestic Vedic ritual with devotional aspects of Hinduism.^{[web 1]}

According to Nakamura, these maṭhas contributed to the influence of Shankara, which was "due to institutional factors".^[24] The maṭhas which he built exist until today, and preserve the teachings and influence of Shankara, "while the writings of other scholars before him came to be forgotten with the passage of time".^[25]

The table below gives an overview of the four Amnaya maṭhas founded by Adi Shankara, and their details.^{[web 4]}