People on Nias in Indonesia move monoliths to a construction site, circa 1915

This is a list of monoliths organized according to the size of the largest block of stone on the site. A monolith is a large stone which has been used to build a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. In this list at least one colossal stone over ten tons has been moved to create the structure or monument.

In most cases ancient civilizations had little, if any, advanced technology that would help them move these monoliths. The most notable exception is that of the ancient Greeks and Romans, who had cranes and treadwheels to help lift colossal stones (see list of ancient Greek and Roman monoliths).

This article also includes a list of modern experimental archaeology efforts to move colossal stones using technologies available to the respective ancient civilizations.

Most of these weights are based on estimates by published scholars; however, there have been numerous false estimates of many of these stones presented as fact. To help recognize exaggerations, an introductory description shows how to calculate the weight of colossal stones from first principles.

Calculating the weight of monoliths

In the cases of smaller monoliths it may be possible to weigh them. However, in most cases monoliths are too large or they may be part of an ancient structure so this method cannot be used. The weight of a stone can be calculated by multiplying its volume and density. Each of these presents challenges.

Volume

To obtain accurate estimates, one needs to survey the monolith, including realistic and explicit assessment of the shapes of inaccessible portions, and then calculate the volume and estimate volumetric errors, which vary crudely as the cube of linear uncertainties.

Density

Monolith with bull, fox, and crane in low relief at Göbekli Tepe

The density of most stone is between 2 and 3 tons per cubic meter. Basalt weighs about 2.8 to 3.0 tons per cubic meter; granite averages about 2.75 metric tons per cubic meter; limestone, 2.7 metric tons per cubic meter; sandstone or marble, 2.5 tons per cubic meter.[1][2][3][4][5] Some softer stones may be lighter than 2 tons per cubic meter; for example, volcanic tuff weighs about 1.9 tons per cubic meter.[6][7] Since the density of most of these stones varies, it is necessary to know the source of the stone to obtain accurate measurements.[8][9] Identifying the rock type alone is not sufficient, as this table[10] illustrates:

Densities of common rocks
in g/cm3 or tons/m3
MaterialDensity
Sediments1.7–2.3
Sandstone2.0–2.6
Shale2.0–2.7
Limestone2.5–2.8
Granite2.5–2.8
Metamorphic rock2.6–3.0
Basalt2.7–3.1

Simply identifying the monolith as sandstone would allow a ± 15% uncertainty in the weight estimate. In practice, one would measure the density of the monolith itself, and preferably document any variation in density within the monolith, as it may not be homogeneous. Non-destructive methods of density measurements are available (e.g., electron back-scatter); alternatively, the site may contain already-separated fragments of the monolith which can be used for laboratory measurements or on-site techniques. At the crudest, a weighing device and a bucket can obtain two significant figures for a density value.

Quarried monoliths

The unfinished obelisk of Aswan

This section lists monoliths that have been at least partially quarried but not moved.

Weight Name/Site Type Country Location Builder Comment
~1,650 t[11] Forgotten Stone Block Lebanon Baalbek Roman Empire 19.6 m long, 6 m wide, ≥5.5 m high
~1,242 t[12] Stone of the South Block Lebanon Baalbek Roman Empire 19.5–20.5 m long, 4.34–4.56 m wide, 4.5 m high
~1,100 t[13] Unfinished obelisk Obelisk Egypt Aswan Ancient Egypt 41.75 m long, 2.5–4.4 m wide
~1,000.12 t[14] Stone of the Pregnant Woman Block Lebanon Baalbek Roman Empire 20.31–20.76 m long, 4–5.29 m wide, 4.21–4.32 m high
[15] Statue of Ahimsa Statue India Mangi-Tungi, Nashik district of Maharashtra Gyanmati, 2016 108 ft (33 m)
[16] Bawangaja Statue India Barwani district of Madhya Pradesh 84 ft (26 m)
400–600 t Gommateshwara statue Statue India Shravanabelagola of Karnataka Chavundaraya 60 ft (18 m) tall, over 30 ft (9.1 m) wide
Rishabha Statue at Gopachal Hill Statue India Gwalior Fort of Madhya Pradesh Jain laymen 58.4 ft (17.8 m) tall
~1,207 t[17] Granite column Column Egypt Mons Claudianus Roman Empire Ca. 17.7 m (59 feet) long[18]

Moved monoliths

The 1,250 t heavy Thunder Stone in Saint Petersburg. On top is an equestrian statue of Peter the Great
The 53.3 t heavy capital block (the rectangular platform fitted with a railing) of Trajan's Column in Rome, Italy, was lifted by Roman cranes to a record height of about 34 m.
The Western Stone of the Western Wall in Jerusalem weighs 517 t.
Neolithic Carnac Stones, France
Stećci of medieval Radimlja necropolis, Stolac, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Cyclopean walls of the ancient Illyrian city of Daorson, Stolac, in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Brownshill Dolmen, Ireland (4th millennium BC). The great capstone weighs about 100 tons.

This section lists monoliths that have been quarried and moved.

Weight Name/Site Type Location Builder Comment
1,250 t[19] Thunder Stone Boulder, Statue pedestal Saint Petersburg, Russia Russian Empire, 1770 Moved 6 km overland for shipment,[19] and cut from 1,500 t to current size in transport[20]
1,000 t[21] Ramesseum Statue Thebes, Egypt Ancient Egypt Transported 170 miles (270 km) by ship from Aswan
800 t each[22] Trilithon (3×) Blocks Baalbek, Lebanon Roman Empire Plus about 24 blocks 300 tons each[23]
700 t each Colossi of Memnon (2×) Statues Thebes, Egypt Ancient Egypt Transported 420 miles (680 km) from el-Gabal el-Ahmar (near modern-day Cairo) over land without using the Nile.[21][24]
520 tons, 170 tons, and 160 tons Great Stele, King Ezana's Stele, Obelisk of Axum Stelae Axum, Ethiopia The stelae were moved about 2.6 miles (4.2 km).[25] King Ezana's stele and the "Obelisk" of Axum were among seven such monuments set up in Axum in the 4th century AD. The Great Stele was never successfully erected and broke into pieces at its present site.
400 t[26] Temple in complex for Khafre's Pyramid Giza, Egypt
300–500 t[27] Masuda no iwafune Asuka, Nara, Japan Large stone structure approximately 11 meters in length, 8 meters in width, and 4.7 meters In height
340 t[28] Levitated Mass Los Angeles, California, United States Sculpture by Michael Heizer, 2012 Moved 106 miles.[29]
330 t[30] The Broken Menhir of Er Grah Menhir Locmariaquer, Brittany, France Neolithic(4700 BC) Moved 10–20 km. It once stood but was later broken in 4
250–300 t[31] Western Stone, Temple Mount Block Jerusalem, Israel[32] Herod, King of Judea during the Second Temple period Weight is disputed; a 2006 analysis estimated the depth of this stone at only 1.8–2.5 m, for a weight of 250–300 t.[31] Weight formerly said to be 550 to 600 t.[33][34]
230 t[35] Mausoleum of Theodoric Roof slab Ravenna, Italy Ostrogothic Kingdom
220 t[36] Menkaure's Pyramid Giza, Egypt Largest stones in mortuary temple
200 t[37] Sahure's pyramid Saqqara, Egypt Largest stones over king's chamber
200 t[38] Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites Korea Largest stone at the site
Weight Name/Site Type Location Builder Comment

Lifted monoliths

Alexander Column's erection on the Palace Square in Saint Petersburg, Russia (1832)
Luxor Obelisk's erection on the Place de la Concorde, Paris (1836)

This section includes monoliths that were quarried, moved and lifted.

Erected in upright position

Monoliths known to have been lifted into an upright position:

Weight Name/Site Type Location Builder Comment
600 t[79] Alexander Column Column Saint Petersburg, Russia Russian Empire Lifted in upright position in 1832
455 t[80] Lateran Obelisk and Obelisk of Theodosius Pair of Obelisks Rome, Italy & Istanbul, Turkey Thutmose III Lifted in upright position originally in 15th century BC as a pair outside the temple of Amun at Karnak, Thebes; both subsequently shipped to Alexandria in the 4th century AD - one then shipped to Rome and erected in 357 AD by Constantius II and the other to Constantinople and installed in 390 AD by Theodosius I. Both partly broken, now 32.18m (Rome) and 19.6m (Istanbul) high.
361 t[81] Vatican Obelisk Obelisk St. Peter's Square, Vatican City Ancient Egypt Removed to Rome in ancient imperial times and re-erected. Relocated in an upright position by Domenico Fontana in 1586 for Pope Sixtus V.
285 t[82] Pompey's Pillar Column Alexandria, Egypt Diocletian Column shaft 20.75 m long, of pink granite (lapis syeneites) quarried in Aswan. Erected 298-303 AD and crowned with a grey granite Corinthian capital and 7 m-tall statue in porphyry.
250 t Luxor Obelisk Obelisk Paris, France Louis-Philippe I Relocated and lifted in upright position by Apollinaire Lebas in 1836
170 tons & 160 tons King Ezana's Stele the Obelisk of Axum Stelae Axum, Ethiopia Kingdom of Axum - Ezana of Axum and before. The stelae were moved about 2.6 miles (4.2 km) from their quarries.[25] They were the largest Axumite stelae to survive installation; larger attempts failed. The "Obelisk" of Axum was removed from a standing position in 1937, cut into five pieces, and taken to Rome to be re-erected. It was again set up in Ethiopia at its original location in 2005.

Lifted clear off the ground

Monoliths that have been placed on a towering structure:

Weight Height of the tower Name/Site Type Location Builder Comment
80 t[83] 66 m (Vimana) Brihadisvara Temple Amalaka block Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India Chola Empire (1010 AD) Block of granite, a square of 7.8 m
25 t[84] 66 m (Vimana) Brihadisvara Temple Khapuri block Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India Chola Empire (1010 AD) Cupolic granite dome

Monoliths known or assumed to have been lifted clear off the ground by cranes into their position:

Weight Height Name/Site Type Location Builder Comment
230 t[35] ~15 m Mausoleum of Theodoric Roof slab Ravenna, Italy Ostrogothic Kingdom
108 t[85] 19 m Jupiter temple Cornice block Baalbek, Lebanon Roman Empire
63 t[85] 19 m Jupiter temple Architrave-frieze block Baalbek, Lebanon Roman Empire
53.3 t[86] ~34 m Trajan's Column Capital block Rome, Italy Roman Empire Dedicated in 113 AD

Roman column monuments like Trajan's Column, though not often themselves monolithic, were built using very large sculpted stone blocks, stacked atop one another using cranes and lewises. The capital block of the column was usually even larger and heavier than the column drums. The columns of Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus Pius, and Constantine, and the lost columns of Theodosius, Arcadius, and Leo were all constructed in this way, on monumental pedestals and crowned with colossal statues. A few were monoliths, including the Column of Diocletian in Alexandria, called "Pompey's Pillar", the "Column of the Goths" and the Column of Marcian in Constantinople, and the lost Column of Antoninus Pius in Rome.

List of efforts to move and install stones

These are listed with the largest experiments first; for additional details of most experiments see related pages.

  • Marinos Carburis, a Greek lieutenant-colonel in the Russian Army, organized the move of an enormous boulder called the Thunder Stone (Russian, Гром-Камень) from the Gulf of Finland in 1768 to Saint Petersburg, Russia for the purpose of using it as a pedestal for the Bronze Horseman statue. The mass of the Thunder Stone has been estimated to be around 1500 tons. This was done by rolling it on bronze ball bearings on a track. It took an estimated 400 men nine months to move it.[87]
  • In 1997, Julian Richards teamed up with Mark Witby and Roger Hopkins to conduct several experiments to replicate the construction at Stonehenge for NOVA's Secrets of Lost Empires mini-series. They initially failed to tow a 40-ton monolith with 130 men but after adding additional men towing as well as some men using levers to prod the megalith forward, they succeeded in inching it forward a small distance.[88]
  • Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner teamed up with a NOVA crew to conduct an obelisk-erecting experiment; they successfully erected a 25-ton obelisk in 1999. They also managed to tow it a short distance.[89][90][91]
  • Thor Heyerdahl organized an effort to pull a 10-ton Moai on a sledge with a group of 180 men. This effort used 18 men per ton. He also conducted an experiment to erect a 10-ton Moai successfully. This experiment also shows the same methods could be used to lift a megalith of that size onto a sledge; most other experiments to move them on sledges failed to explain how they got them on the sledge, and one organized by Jo Anne Van Tilburg, even showed them using a crane to get it on the sledge. [92][93][94]
  • Charles Love experimented with a 10-ton replica of a Moai on Easter Island. His first experiment found rocking the statue to walk it was too unstable over more than a few hundred yards. He then found that by placing the statue upright on two sled runners atop log rollers, 25 men were able to move the statue 150 feet (46 m) in two minutes. This effort used 2.5 men per ton.[95]
  • Austen Henry Layard organized an effort to transport two 10-ton colossal statues of a winged lion and a winged bull with a group of 300 men in 1847. He loaded them on a wheeled cart and towed them from Nimrud to the river and loaded on a barge, where it was sent to London. This effort used 30 men per ton.[96]
  • Paul Emile Botta and Victor Place attempted to move two additional 30-ton colossi to Paris from Khorsabad in 1853. To facilitate their shipment to Paris, they were sawn in pieces, but were still too heavy for the methods employed. One of the pieces fell into the Tigris River, never to be retrieved. The other made it to Paris.[96]
  • Giovanni Battista Belzoni organized an effort to pull a 7.5-ton fragment of a statue of Ramses on rollers with a group of 130 men in 1815. This statue was towed to the river and loaded on a barge, where it was sent to London. Progress increased with practice as they went along. This effort used 17 or 18 men per ton.[97]
  • Henri Chevrier organized an effort to pull a 6-ton block on a sledge with a group of six men. This effort used 1 man per ton.[98] Other reports claim that Chevier's experiment required 3 men per ton.[99]
  • Josh Bernstein and Julian Richards organized an effort to pull a 2-ton stone on wooden tracks with a group of about 16 men. This effort used 8 men per ton.[100]
  • Mark Lehner and NOVA organized an experiment to tow stones and to build a pyramid 9 meters wide by 9 meters deep by 6 meters high. They were able to tow a 2-ton block on a sledge across wood tracks with 12 to 20 men. This effort used 6 to 10 men per ton. The pyramid was 54 cubic meters total estimated weight 135 tons. It was built out of 186 stones. The average weight of each stone was almost 1,500 lb (680 kg) (.75 tons). They found that four or five men could use levers to flip stones less than a ton and roll them to transport them. 44 men took 22 days to complete the pyramid, including the carving of the stones. However, they used iron to carve the stones, which was not widely used in Ancient Egypt; copper was typically used. They also used a modern front end loader to accelerate the work on the lower courses. They were unable to use the front end loader to install the capstone, since it was too high; they had to use levers to raise it to 20 feet (6.1 m).[101]
  • In a 2001 exercise, an attempt was made to transport a large stone along a land and sea route from Wales to Stonehenge. Volunteers pulled it for some miles (with great difficulty) on a wooden sledge over land, using modern roads and low-friction netting to assist sliding, but once transferred to a replica prehistoric boat, the stone sank in Milford Haven before it even reached the rough seas of the Bristol Channel.[102]
  • Roger Hopkins and Vince Lee both theorized about how the megalithic stones were moved at Baalbek; these theories involved either towing them or flipping them.[103]
  • Vince Lee participated in experiments to test his theories about how the walls of Sacsayhuamán were built.[103]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Kumagai, Naoichi; Sadao Sasajima; Hidebumi Ito (15 February 1978), "Long-term Creep of Rocks: Results with Large Specimens Obtained in about 20 Years and Those with Small Specimens in about 3 Years", Journal of the Society of Materials Science (Japan), Japan Energy Society, 27 (293): 157–161, retrieved 16 June 2008
  2. ↑ "Density of Minerals Task with Student Directions". Performance Assessment Links in Math (PALM). SRI International. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
  3. ↑ "Glossary". Strata.geol.sc.edu. Archived from the original on 7 March 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  4. ↑ "density & specific gravity of meteorites". Meteorites.wustl.edu. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  5. ↑ "Eurostone Marble Inc.com". Eurostonemarble.com. Archived from the original on 7 September 2010. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  6. ↑ "Basalt Continuous Fiber". Albarrie.com. Archived from the original on 3 November 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  7. ↑ Carlson, R. A. (1 April 1985). "Energy Citations Database (ECD) – Document #5461391". Osti.gov. OSTI 5461391. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ↑ "Calculating Density". Onekama.k12.mi.us. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  9. ↑ "Nuts & Bolts of Density". Onekama.k12.mi.us. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  10. ↑ "Density Variations of Earth Materials". Earthsci.unimelb.edu.au. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  11. ↑ "Archaeologists Discover The World's Largest Ancient Stone Block". io9. 28 November 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  12. ↑ Ruprechtsberger 1999, p. 17
  13. ↑ Klemm & Klemm 1993, pp. 323f.
  14. ↑ Ruprechtsberger 1999, p. 15
  15. ↑ Sharma, Bhika, Jain Sidha Ksehtra Mangi-Tungi, Webdunia, archived from the original on 4 May 2016, retrieved 11 February 2016
  16. ↑ Sharma, Bhika, जैन सिद्ध क्षेत्र बावनगजा, Webdunia
  17. ↑ Maxfield 2001, p. 158
  18. ↑ Scaife 1953, p. 37
  19. 1 2 Adam 1977, p. 42−45
  20. ↑ "Transport du piédestal de la statue de Pierre le Grand". La Nature magazine, second semester 1882. (in French). Retrieved 22 April 2007.
  21. 1 2 Scarre 1999, p. 268.
  22. ↑ Adam 1977, p. 52
  23. ↑ Alouf, Michael M., 1944: History of Baalbek. American Press. p. 129
  24. ↑ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993)
  25. 1 2 Scarre 1999, p. 281-285.
  26. ↑ Siliotti, Alberto, Zahi Hawass, 1997 "Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt" p. 62
  27. ↑ "Text Browse by Country, County and Type of Site : The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map". Megalithic.co.uk. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  28. ↑ "Levitated Mass FAQ" (PDF). Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
  29. ↑ "Mass movers". Observatoire du Land Art. 26 February 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
  30. ↑ Scarre 1999, p. 255-257.
  31. 1 2 Harry M. Jol, Paul D. Bauman and Dan Bahat: Looking into the Western Wall, Jerusalem, Israel. in: Dan Bahat, The Jerusalem Western Wall Tunnel, Israel Exploration Society, 2013, pp. 395-400.
  32. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-08. Retrieved 2017-06-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  33. ↑ The History Channel, in "Lost Worlds of King Herod", cited a 16.5 m depth and 567 tonnes estimate
  34. ↑ Dan Bahat: Touching the Stones of our Heritage, Israeli ministry of Religious Affairs, 2002
  35. 1 2 Heidenreich & Johannes 1971, p. 63
  36. ↑ Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 pp. 147–163
  37. ↑ source: Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 pp. 175–6, 180–1, 275
  38. ↑ "Gochang, Hwasun, and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites – World Heritage Site – Pictures, info and travel reports". World Heritage Site. 1 January 2010. Archived from the original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  39. 1 2 "The natural and architectural ensemble of Stolac". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 7 August 2021.
  40. ↑ Time Life Lost Civilizations series:Aztecs: Reign of Blood and Splendor (1992) pp. 45–47
  41. ↑ "Non-Western – Rain God, Tlaloc". Instructional1.calstatela.edu. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  42. ↑ "Mexico'S Lord Of The Waters". Chapala.com. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  43. ↑ "Kerloas menhir – Menhir de Kerloas [Sophie's maze]". Sophie-g.net. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  44. ↑ Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 pp. 246–9
  45. ↑ Browman, D. L., 1981, New light on Andean Tiwanaku. New Scientist. vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 408–419.
  46. ↑ Coe, Michael, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson, 1986 "Atlas of Ancient America" p. 190
  47. ↑ Scarre 1999, p. 220-221.
  48. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Scarre 1999.
  49. ↑ Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 pp. 237–240
  50. ↑ Siliotti, Alberto, Zahi Hawass, 1997 "Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt"
  51. ↑ Weir, A (1980), Early Ireland. A Field Guide, Belfast: Blackstaff Press, p. 101
  52. ↑ Danze, Jean (2011). Le secret des menhirs: de Bretagne et d'ailleurs (in French). La Découvrance. p. 22. ISBN 978-2842657000.
  53. ↑ Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997) pp. 148–9 ISBN 0-500-05084-8
  54. ↑ "NOVA Online | Secrets of Easter Island | Paro". Pbs.org. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  55. ↑ Walker, Charles, 1980 "Wonders of the Ancient World" pp. 24–7
  56. ↑ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993) pp. 53–54
  57. ↑ Lancaster 1999, p. 430
  58. ↑ "ASUKA/isibutai kofun". Asukanet.gr.jp. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  59. ↑ Parker, Freda (12 May 2009). "The Pantheon – Rome – 126 AD | Monolithic". Static.monolithic.com. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  60. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  61. ↑ "The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Temples of Malta". Bradshawfoundation.com. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  62. ↑ "KING ASHOKA: His Edicts and His Times". Cs.colostate.edu. Archived from the original on 28 October 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  63. ↑ Taracha, Piotr (2009). Religions of second millennium Anatolia. Eisenbrauns. p. 12. ISBN 978-3-447-05885-8.
  64. ↑ "The World's First Temple". Archaeology.org. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  65. ↑ Lynne Lancaster,"Building Trajan's Column," American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul. 1999) p. 426
  66. ↑ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993) p. 133
  67. ↑ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings pp. 118–119
  68. ↑ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings. (1995) pp. 112–121
  69. ↑ Lost Worlds: The Pagans (of Britain) History Channel series with contributions from historian Prof. Ronald Hutton, Archeologists Erika Guttmann and Martin Carruthers
  70. ↑ Walker, Charles, 1980 "Wonders of the Ancient World" pp. 150–3
  71. ↑ Aztecs: Reign of Blood and Splendor. Virginia:Time Life, 1992.
  72. ↑ Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997) pp. 196–7 ISBN 0-500-05084-8.
  73. ↑ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Southeast Asia: A Past Regained (1995)
  74. ↑ "Newgrange: Archaeology, Art and Legend by Michael, J, O'Kelly, & Newgrange Excavation Report Critique by Alan Marshall. Summary of excavations at Newgrange". Knowth.com. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
  75. ↑ Siliotti, Alberto, Zahi Hawass, 1997 "Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt" pp. 63–9
  76. ↑ "Rice Centennial Timeline". Archived from the original on 2015-10-23. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
  77. ↑ "Moving an Ancient Town to Higher Ground". The Atlantic. 8 October 2019.
  78. ↑ Atchison, Bob. "Columns and Capitals of Hagia Sophia". Retrieved 13 July 2020.
  79. ↑ "Установка колонны \ Александровская колонна". Archived from the original on 2015-05-18. Retrieved 2012-12-16.
  80. ↑ "NOVA Online – Mysteries of the Nile – A World of Obelisks: Rome". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 17 April 2018.
  81. ↑ Lancaster 1999, p. 428
  82. ↑ Adam 1977, pp. 50f.
  83. ↑ "Great Living Chola Temples". Archaeological Survey of India. Archived from the original on 2019-04-14. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
  84. ↑ S.R. Balasubrahmanyam (1975). Middle Chola Temples. Thomson Press. ISBN 978-9060236079.
  85. 1 2 Coulton 1974, p. 19
  86. ↑ Lancaster 1999, pp. 419, 426
  87. ↑ "(French) Transport du piédestal de la statue de Pierre le Grand La Nature magazine, second semester 1882. http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?4KY28.19/351/100/432/0/0. Retrieved 22 April 2007.
  88. ↑ "NOVA | Transcripts | Secrets of Lost Empires | Stonehenge". PBS. 11 February 1997. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  89. ↑ "NOVA Online | Mysteries of the Nile | August 27, 1999: The Third Attempt". Pbs.org. 27 August 1999. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  90. ↑ "NOVA Online | Mysteries of the Nile | March 14, 1999: Pulling Together". Pbs.org. 14 March 1999. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  91. ↑ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993) pp. 56–57
  92. ↑ "NOVA Online | Secrets of Easter Island | Past Attempts". Pbs.org. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  93. ↑ Heyerdahl, Thor Aku-Aku; The 1958 Expedition to Easter Island.
  94. ↑ Heyerdahl, Thor. Easter Island – A Mystery Solved. 1988. ISBN 951-30-8952-5
  95. ↑ John Flenley and Paul G. Bahn (2003). The Enigmas of Easter Island: Island on the Edge, p 150. ISBN 0-19-280340-9
  96. 1 2 Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings.(1995) pp. 112–121
  97. ↑ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993) pp. 47–48
  98. ↑ Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 pp. 273–74
  99. ↑ Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997) p. 224 ISBN 0-500-05084-8.
  100. ↑ Josh Bernstein: Digging for the Truth pp. 133–35 book based on History Channel series
  101. ↑ Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997) pp. 202–225 ISBN 0-500-05084-8.
  102. ↑ Theories about Stonehenge
  103. 1 2 History Channel "Mega Movers: Ancient Mystery Moves"

Sources

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.