Graphic showing the largest living and extinct insects, from top to bottom, left column: actaeon beetle, coscinocera hercules, homoioptera gigantea, titan beetle and gigatitan similis, central column: mazothairos enormis, eurycnema versirubra, meganeuropsis permiana and phryganistria sp., right column: clatrotitan scullyi, kalligramma haeckeli, bojophlebia prokopi, arachnacris tenuipes and thysania agrippina
Graphic showing the largest living and extinct insects, from top to bottom, left column: actaeon beetle, Coscinocera hercules, Homoioptera gigantea, titan beetle and Gigatitan similis, central column: Mazothairos enormis, Eurycnema versirubra, Meganeuropsis permiana and Phryganistria sp., right column: Clatrotitan scullyi, Kalligramma haeckeli, Bojophlebia prokopi, Arachnacris tenuipes and Thysania agrippina

Insects, which are a type of arthropod, are the most numerous group of multicellular organisms on the planet, with over a million species identified so far.[1] The title of heaviest insect in the world has many contenders, the most frequently crowned of which is the larval stage of the goliath beetle, Goliathus goliatus, the maximum size of which is at least 115 g (4.1 oz) and 11.5 cm (4.5 in). The highest confirmed weight of an adult insect is 71 g (2.5 oz) for a giant weta, Deinacrida heteracantha,[2] although it is likely one of the elephant beetles, Megasoma elephas and Megasoma actaeon, or goliath beetles, both of which can commonly exceed 50 g (1.8 oz) and 10 cm (3.9 in), can reach a greater weight.[2]

The longest insects are the stick insects, see below.

Representatives of the extinct dragonfly-like order Meganisoptera (also known as griffinflies) such as the Carboniferous Meganeura monyi and the Permian Meganeuropsis permiana are the largest insect species ever known. These creatures had a wingspan of some 71 cm (28 in). Their maximum body mass is uncertain, with estimates varying between 34 g[3] and 240 g.[4]

Dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata)

The largest living species of odonate (the order that includes dragonflies and damselflies) is Megaloprepus caerulatus, reaching 19 centimeters (7.5 inches) in wingspan. Tetracanthagyna plagiata of Southeast Asia is bulkier and heavier than Megaloprepus at up to 7 g (0.25 oz) 190 mm (7.5 in) across the wings and a body length of over 120 mm (4.7 in).

See also the extinct genera Meganeuropsis and Meganeura, although they are not certain to be included in the modern dragonfly order.

Mayflies (Ephemeroptera)

The largest mayflies are members of the genus Proboscidoplocia from Madagascar. These insects can reach a length of 5 cm (2.0 in).

Palaeodictyoptera (extinct)

The largest insect of the Palaeodictyoptera order, Mazothairos enormis from the Carboniferous period reached a wingspan of about 56 centimeters (22 in).[5]

Grasshoppers, crickets, and relatives (Orthoptera)

Giant weta

Arachnacris katydids and Tropidacris grasshoppers reach up to 12–15 cm (4.7–5.9 in) in length and 23–27.5 cm (9.1–10.8 in) in wingspan, making them the largest by these measurements.[6][7] The largest Saga and Pseudophyllus bush crickets are only a few centimeters smaller.[7]

The heaviest of this widespread, varied complex of insects is the Little Barrier Island giant weta, Deinacrida heteracantha, of New Zealand; one specimen weighed 71 g (2.5 oz) and measured nearly 10 cm (3.9 in),[2] giving it one of the largest insects weights ever known. These heavyweight insects can be over 9 cm (3.5 in) long.[8]

Titanopterans (Titanoptera) (extinct)

Related to modern orthopterans, Triassic insects of the extinct suborder of Titanoptera[9] surpassed them in size. The wingspan of Gigatitan vulgaris was as large as of 40 centimetres (16 in).[10] Clatrotitan andersoni also reached a huge size, having a forewing of 13.8 centimetres (5.4 in) long.[11]

Earwigs (Dermaptera)

The largest of the earwigs is the Saint Helena earwig (Labidura herculeana), which is up to 8.4 cm (3.3 in) in length. There are no recent records of this species and it is generally considered extinct.[12] The largest certainly living species is the Australian giant earwig (Titanolabis colossea), which is about 5 cm (2.0 in) long.[7]

Scorpionflies (Mecoptera)

The largest scorpionfly, the common scorpionfly (Panorpa communis), can reach a body length of about 30 mm (1.2 in).[13]

Stick insects (Phasmatodea)

Phobaeticus serratipes, one of the longest stick insects
Distributions of stick insect species known to exceed 50 cm (20 in) in total length

The longest known stick insects are also the longest known insects, notably species in the tribe Pharnaciini, but they are generally relatively lightweight because of their slender shape. Female of these stick insects usually reach considerably larger sizes than males of the same species.[14] The longest known is a currently undescribed species of Phryganistria, informally referred to as Phryganistria "chinensis", that was discovered in China in 2014.[15] A wild collected female kept at the Insect Museum of West China in Chengdu was the record holder with a total length, including extended legs, of 62.4 cm (24.6 in), and a body length of 36.1 cm (14.2 in),[16][17] but it was surpassed by one of its captive bred young that reached 64 cm (25 in) in total length.[18][19]

Other very large species, formerly believed to be longest but now considered second longest is Phobaeticus chani; a specimen held in the Natural History Museum in London is 56.7 cm (22.3 in) in total length, including extended legs, and it has a body length of 35.7 cm (14.1 in).[20][21][22] Females of the Australian Ctenomorpha gargantua have been confirmed at up to 56.5 cm (22.2 in) in total length (including extended legs and cerci, the latter of which are unusually long in this species); one captive individual was measured at 61.5 cm (24.2 in), but that size remains unconfirmed.[23][24][25] Another very large species is Phobaeticus kirbyi where the total length (including extended legs) is up to 54.6 cm (21.5 in) and the body alone up to 32.8 cm (12.9 in).[26] Another of the longest insect in terms of total length is Phobaeticus serratipes of Malaysia and Singapore, measuring up to 55.5 cm (21.9 in) in total length.[27]

The spiny stick insect (Heteropteryx dilatata) of Southeast Asia does not reach the extreme lengths of its cousins, the body reaching up to 16 cm (6.3 in) long, but it is much bulkier. The largest Heteropteryx weighed about 65 g (2.3 oz) and was 3.5 cm (1.4 in) wide across the thickest part of the body.[8]

Cockroaches and termites (Blattodea)

Giant burrowing cockroach

The largest cockroach in length and wingspan is the South American Megaloblatta longipennis, at up to 9.7 cm (3.8 in) and 18–20 cm (7.1–7.9 in), respectively.[6][28] Other contenders for longest are Blaberus giganteus, which is found in the same general region and may reach a length of up to 9 or 10 cm (3.5 or 3.9 in), depending on source,[29][30] and Princisia vanwaerebeki of Madagascar, which grows between 5.6 and 10 cm in length.[31] The heaviest is the Australian giant burrowing cockroach (Macropanesthia rhinoceros), which can attain a length of 8.4 cm (3.3 in) and a weight of 33.5 g (1.18 oz).[6]

Termites

The largest of the termites is the African species Macrotermes bellicosus. The queen of this species can attain a length of 10.6 cm (4.2 in) and breadth of 5.5 cm (2.2 in); other adults, however, are about a third of this size.

Praying mantises (Mantodea)

The giant stick mantises Toxodera maxima and Ischnomantis gigas can reach lengths of over 17 cm, but are more gracile in build than other large mantises. Other species of (Toxodera and Ischnomantis) and other genera of “stick mantises” (Heterochaeta, Solygia and Tauromantis) can attain lengths almost as large (over 16 cm). Mantises of the tribe Hierodulini (Of which Rhombodera fratricida is the largest formally described by science) can reach lengths of nearly 13 cm (5.1 in) and are more robust than comparably sized mantises of other genera (Tenodera, Macromantis, Idolomantis, Sphodromantis, Deroplatys, Plistospilota and Stagmatoptera). Some larger species have been known to capture and consume frogs, lizards, mice, small birds, small fish and even small snakes.

True bugs (Hemiptera)

Giant water bug walking over land

The largest species of this diverse, huge order are the giant water bugs Lethocerus grandis and L. maximus.[32] These can surpass a length of 12 cm (4.7 in),[33] although they are more slender and less heavy than most other insects of this size (principally the huge beetles). The largest cicada is Megapomponia imperatoria, which has a head-body length of about 7 cm (2.8 in) and a wingspan of 18–20 cm (7–8 in).[34][35] The cicadas of the genus Tacua can also grow to comparably large sizes. The largest type of aphid is the giant oak aphid (Stomaphis quercus), which can reach an overall length of 2 cm (0.79 in).[36] The biggest species of leafhopper is Ledromorpha planirostris, which can reach a length of 2.8 cm (1.1 in).[37]

Dobsonflies and relatives (Megaloptera)

Megaloptera includes dobsonflies, alderflies and relatives. The largest is the dobsonfly Acanthacorydalis fruhstorferi, which can have a wingspan of up to 21.6 cm (8.5 in), making it the largest aquatic insect in the world by this measurement.[38] This species is native to China and Vietnam, and its body can be up to 10.5 cm (4.1 in) long.[39]

Net-winged insects (Neuroptera)

Blue eyes lacewing

These flying insects reach their largest size in Palparellus voeltzkowi, which can have a wingspan over 16 cm (6.3 in).[40] The largest lacewing is the Australian "blue eyes lacewing" (Nymphes myrmeleonides), which can measure up to 4 cm (1.6 in) in length and span 11 cm (4.3 in) across the wings.[41] Some forms of this ancient order could grow extremely large during the Jurassic period and may have ranked among the largest insects ever.[42] Found in the Early Cretaceous sedimentary rocks, Makarkinia adamsi had wings nearly 140–160 mm (5.5–6.3 in) in length.[43]

Lice (Phthiraptera)

These parasitic insects are typically modest in size. The largest known species is the hog louse, Haematopinus suis, a sucking louse that lives on large livestock like pigs and cattle. It can range up to 6 mm (0.24 in) in length.[44]

Stoneflies (Plecoptera)

Pteronarcys californica

The largest species of stonefly is Pteronarcys californica of western North America, a species favored by fishermen as lures. This species can attain a length of 5 cm (2.0 in) and a wingspan of over 8 cm (3.1 in).[45]

Beetles (Coleoptera)

The hercules beetle, the world's longest beetle

Beetles constitute the most diverse order of organisms on earth, with about 400,000 species identified to this day. The most massive of them belong to the genera Goliathus, Megasoma, Chalcosoma, Titanus, Macrodontia, and Xixuthrus. The longest is the Hercules beetle, Dynastes hercules, with a maximum overall length of at least 18.1 cm (7.1 in) including the very long pronotal horn. The longest overall beetle is a species of longhorn beetle, Batocera wallacei, from New Guinea, which can attain a length of 26.6 cm (10.5 in), about 19 cm (7.5 in) of which is comprised by the long antennae.[8]

Icebugs (Grylloblattodea)

The largest icebug species, Grylloblatta campodeiformis, 3 cm (1.2 in) long, excluding ovipositors and cerci, and are fairly elongate, wingless insects. They are a uniform honey-yellow in colour and covered with very short hair. Unlike some other species of grylloblatid, G. campodeiformis has eyes which have roughly 70 facets. The head is fairly flat and rounded. The thorax is elongate and over a third of the body length. The abdomen is composed of 10 segments and over half the body length. The legs are long and narrow (cursorial) with stout coxae and long femora.[46] Their antennae are long ~9 mm (0.35 in) and thread-like. In adults, the number of antennal subsegments is variable, ranging from 24 to 27.[47]

Ants, bees, and wasps (Hymenoptera)

Megachile pluto, the largest bee.

The largest of ants, and the heaviest species of the family, are the queens of Dorylus helvolus, reaching a length of 5 cm (2.0 in). The ant that averages the largest for the mean size of the whole colony is Dinoponera gigantea, averaging up to 3.3 cm (1+1⁄4 in). Another ant that is native to Australia, Myrmecia brevinoda, workers are reported to be 3.7 cm (1.5 in) on average and queens are more than 4 cm (1.6 in) in length.[8]

The largest of bees is Megachile pluto, the females of which can be 3.8 cm (1+1⁄2 in) long, with a 6.3-cm (2.5-in) wingspan.

The largest wingspan of any wasp is probably the so-called tarantula hawk species Pepsis heros, measuring up to 12.2 cm (4.8 in) in wingspan, although many other Pepsis species approach a similar size and other species of wasp can probably attain greater weights. The heaviest wasp is probably either the giant scoliid wasp Megascolia procer or the largest known social wasp, the queens of the Asian giant hornet (Vespa mandarinia). With the former attaining a body length of over 6.5 cm (2.6 in) and a 9.9 cm (3.9 in) wingspan and the latter a body length exceeding 6 cm (2.4 in) with a 9.3 cm (3.7 in) wingspan.[48]

Butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera)

The Queen Alexandra's birdwing is the largest species of butterfly.

The largest lepidopteran species overall is often claimed to be either the Queen Alexandra's birdwing (Ornithoptera alexandrae), a butterfly from Papua New Guinea, or the Atlas moth (Attacus atlas), a moth from Southeast Asia. Both of these species can reach a length of 8 cm (3.1 in), a wingspan of 28 cm (11 in) and a weight of 12 g (0.42 oz). One Atlas moth allegedly had a wingspan of 30 cm (12 in) but this measurement was not verified.[8] The larvae in the previous species can weigh up to 58 and 54 g (2.0 and 1.9 oz), respectively. However, the white witch of Central and South America, Thysania agrippina, has the widest recorded wingspan of the order, and indeed of any living insect, at up to 30 cm (12 in). The verified record-sized Thysania spanned 30.8 cm (12.1 in) across the wings, although specimens have been reported to 36 cm (14 in).[8]The largest moth in terms of body mass is the giant wood moth Endoxyla cinereus. Despite having a smaller wingspan than the other species, it has a mass of about 30 g (1.1 oz) and outweighs them all. The Hercules moth (Coscinocera hercules), in the family Saturniidae, is endemic to New Guinea and northern Australia, and its wings have the largest documented surface area (300 square centimeters) of any living insect,[49][50] and a maximum wingspan which is confirmed to 28 cm (11 in) while unconfirmed specimens have spanned up to 35.5 cm (14.0 in).

True flies (Diptera)

Gauromydas heros, the world's largest true fly

The largest species of this huge order is Gauromydas heros, which can reach a length of 6 cm (2+1⁄4 in) and a wingspan of 10 cm (3.9 in).[6] The largest species of crane fly (which are much thinner than Gauromydas) is Holorusia brobdignagia. It can attain about the same head-and-body length and wingspan, but if the legs are extended in front of and behind the body, then an overall length of 23 cm (9.1 in) makes it the longest true fly.[6]

Booklice (Psocoptera)

The largest of this order of very small insects is the barklouse of the genus Psocus, the top size of which is about 1 cm (0.39 in).

Fleas (Siphonaptera)

The largest species of flea is Hystrichopsylla schefferi. This parasite, known exclusively from the fur of the mountain beaver, can reach a length of 1.2 cm (0.47 in).[51]

Thrips (Thysanoptera)

Members of the genus Phasmothrips are the largest thrips. The maximum size of these species is about 1.3 cm (0.51 in).

Caddisflies (Trichoptera)

The largest of the small, moth-like caddisflies is Eubasilissa maclachlani. This species can range up to 7 cm (2.8 in) across the wings.[52]

Silverfishes and allies (Thysanura)

These insects, known to feed on human household objects, are up to 4.3 cm (1.7 in) in length. One 350 million-year-old form grew up to 6 cm (2.4 in) long.

Angel insects (Zoraptera)

The largest angel insect species, Hubbard's angel insect (Zorotypus hubbardi), grows up to 3 mm (0.12 in) in length.[53][54]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Zhang Z-Q, ed. (2011) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-Level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness. Auckland, N. Z.: Magnolia Press
  2. 1 2 3 Williams, David M (2001-04-21). "Chapter 30 — Largest Insect". Book of Insect Records. University of Florida. Archived from the original on 2014-08-20.
  3. ↑ Dorrington, Graham E. (2016-04-01). "Heavily loaded flight and limits to the maximum size of dragonflies (Anisoptera) and griffenflies (Meganisoptera)". Lethaia. 49 (2): 261–274. doi:10.1111/let.12144. ISSN 1502-3931.
  4. ↑ Polet, Delyle (2011-05-06). "The Biggest Bugs: An investigation into the factors controlling the maximum size of insects". Eureka. 2 (1): 43–46. doi:10.29173/eureka10299. ISSN 1923-1520.
  5. ↑ Kukalová-Peck, Jarmila; Richardson, Eugene S. (1983). "New Homoiopteridae (Insecta: Paleodictyoptera) with wing articulation from Upper Carboniferous strata of Mazon Creek, Illinois". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 61 (7): 1670–1687. doi:10.1139/z83-218.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Carwardine, M. (2008). Animal Records. Natural History Museum, London. pp. 229–230. ISBN 978-1-4027-5623-8.
  7. 1 2 3 Flindt, R. (2006). Amazing Numbers in Biology. Springer. p. 10. ISBN 978-3-540-30146-2.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Wood, Gerald The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats (1983) ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9
  9. ↑ Order Orthoptera, Orthoptera Species File (Version 5.0/5.0); retrieved 20 August 2022
  10. ↑ Park, Tae-Yoon S.; Kim, Do-Yoon; Nam, Gi-Soo; Lee, Mirinae (2022-05-06). "A new titanopteran Magnatitan jongheoni n. gen. n. sp. from southwestern Korean Peninsula". Journal of Paleontology. 96 (5): 1111–1118. doi:10.1017/jpa.2022.30. ISSN 0022-3360. S2CID 248592776.
  11. ↑ McKeown, Keith C. (1937-05-15). "New fossil insect wings (Protohemiptera, family Mesotitanidae)". Records of the Australian Museum. 20 (1): 31–37. doi:10.3853/j.0067-1975.20.1937.565. ISSN 0067-1975.
  12. ↑ "Labidura". Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2011-02-05.
  13. ↑ UK Safari
  14. ↑ Bradler, S.; Buckley, T.R. (2018). "Biodiversity of Phasmatodea". In Foottit, R.G.; Adler, P.H. (eds.). Insect Biodiversity: Science and Society. Vol. II. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 281–313. doi:10.1002/9781118945582.ch11. ISBN 978-1-118-94557-5.
  15. ↑ Baggaley, K. (6 May 2016). "World's Longest Insect Is Two Feet Long". PopularScience. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  16. ↑ "Longest Insect discovered in China". Archived from the original on May 8, 2016.
  17. ↑ "The discovery of the world's longest insect. Crawling "tree branches"". Google Arts and Culture. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
  18. ↑ Xuequan, M. (8 August 2017). "China breeds world's largest insect". xinhuanet. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  19. ↑ "Bugs beyond belief! Shining the spotlight on celebrity creepy-crawlies". Guinness World Records. 29 November 2018. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  20. ↑ "World's longest insect revealed". London: Natural History Museum. 2008-10-16. Archived from the original on 2008-10-19. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
  21. ↑ Seow-Choen, F. (1995). "The longest insect in the world". Malayan Naturalist 48: 12.
  22. ↑ Hennemann, F. H. & Conle, O.V. (October 2008). "Revision of Oriental Phasmatodea: The tribe Pharnaciini Günther, 1953, including the description of the world's longest insect, and a survey of the family Phasmatidae Gray, 1835 with keys to the subfamilies and tribes (Phasmatodea: "Anareolatae": Phasmatidae)" (PDF). Zootaxa. Auckland, New Zealand: Magnolia Press. 1906: 1–316. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1906.1.1. ISSN 1175-5326. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
  23. ↑ Brock, Paul D.; Hasenpusch, Jack W. (2009). The Complete Field Guide to Stick and Leaf Insects of Australia. CSIRO Publishing. p. 106. ISBN 9780643094185.
  24. ↑ Dean, S. (15 February 2016). "Gargantuan Aussie stick insect has babies in a world first". Special Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  25. ↑ Cane, S. (10 March 2014). "Australia's biggest stick insect found". Australian National Geographic. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  26. ↑ Brock, P. D. (1999). The amazing world of stick and leaf-insects. Essex, England: Cravitz.
  27. ↑ Seow-Choen, F. (1995). "The longest insect in the world". Malayan Nat. 48: 12.
  28. ↑ "Largest cockroach". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
  29. ↑ "Allpet Roaches;Blattodea Rearing". Allpet. Retrieved 2019-07-15.
  30. ↑ Davis, Shkora (2015). "Blaberus giganteus (Giant Cave Cockroach)" (PDF). The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago.
  31. ↑ Delfosse, E. (2004). "Les blattes souffleuses de Madagascar". Insectes. 153 (4): 19–22.
  32. ↑ P.J., Perez-Goodwyn (2006). "Taxonomic revision of the subfamily Lethocerinae Lauck & Menke (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae)". Stuttgarter Beiträge zur Naturkunde, Serie A (Biologie). 695: 1–71.
  33. ↑ Haddad, V.; Schwartz; Schwartz; Carvalho (2010). "Bites Caused by Giant Water Bugs Belonging to Belostomatidae Family (Hemiptera, Heteroptera) in Humans: A Report of Seven Cases". Wilderness & Environmental Medicine. 21 (2): 130–133. doi:10.1016/j.wem.2010.01.002. PMID 20591375.
  34. ↑ Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. 4, Chickaree – crabs (3rd ed.). Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation. p. 455. ISBN 0-7614-7270-3
  35. ↑ Flindt, R. (2006). Amazing Numbers in Biology, p. 10. ISBN 978-3540301462
  36. ↑ Giant Oak Aphid hunt is on. The Telegraph (2007-08-08)
  37. ↑ Ledromorpha planirostris. Bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au
  38. ↑ "Largest aquatic insect (by wingspan)". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
  39. ↑ Xing Yue Liu; Ding Yang; Si Qin Ge; Xing Ke Yang (2005). "Phylogenetic review of the Chinese species of Acanthacorydalis (Megaloptera, Corydalidae)". Zoologica Scripta. 34 (4): 373–387. doi:10.1111/j.1463-6409.2005.00197.x. S2CID 84988447.
  40. ↑ Palparellus voeltzkowi (Kolbe, 1906). Researcharchive.calacademy.org
  41. ↑ Bio-Ditrl, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta Archived July 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  42. ↑ Michael S. Engel (2005). "A remarkable kalligrammatid lacewing from the Upper Jurassic of Kazakhstan (Neuroptera: Kalligrammatidae)". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. 108 (1): 59–62. doi:10.1660/0022-8443(2005)108[0059:arklft]2.0.co;2. JSTOR 3628206. S2CID 86240200.
  43. ↑ Bechly, G.; Makarkin, V. N. (2016). "A new gigantic lacewing species (Insecta: Neuroptera) from the Lower Cretaceous of Brazil confirms the occurrence of Kalligrammatidae in the Americas". Cretaceous Research. 58: 135–140. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2015.10.014.
  44. ↑ ADW: Haematopinus suis: Information. Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu
  45. ↑ Pteronarcys californica – aka Giant Stonefly or Giant Salmonfly. Riverwood Blog – Fly Fishing Gear & Guided Fishing Trips in Oregon (2009-04-20) Archived April 2, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  46. ↑ Walker, Edmund (1914). "A new species of Orthoptera, forming a new genus and family". The Canadian Entomologist. 46 (3): 93–99. doi:10.4039/ent4693-3. S2CID 85329926. Retrieved 2014-12-19.
  47. ↑ Slifer, Eleanor H. (1976). "Sense organs on antennal flagellum of Grylloblata campodeiformis E.M. Walker (Orthoptera: Grylloblattodea)". Transactions of the American Entomological Society. 87 (9 & 10): 275–276. Retrieved 2014-12-25.
  48. ↑ Vespa mandarinia factsheet
  49. ↑ Robert G. Foottit & Peter H. Adler. 2009. Insect Biodiversity: Science and Society. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1-405-15142-9
  50. ↑ Rainier Flindt. 2006. Amazing Numbers in Biology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. ISBN 3-540-30146-1
  51. ↑ Yoon, Carol Kaesuk (28 July 2014). "The Great Giant Flea Hunt". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 October 2021.
  52. ↑ Diptera.info – Discussion Forum: The LARGEST caddisfly of the world.
  53. ↑ Foottit, Robert G.; Adler, Peter H. (2018). Insect Biodiversity: Science and Society. Wiley. pp. 199–207. ISBN 978-1-118-94560-5.
  54. ↑ Engel, Michael S. (2005). "Zoraptera". Tree of Life Web Project. Retrieved 9 March 2019.
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