Postpositions

조사(助詞), josa (also called 토씨 tossi) are Korean postpositions, also known as case markers. Examples include 는 (neun, topic marker) and 를 (reul, object marker). Postpositions come after substantives and are used to indicate the role (subject, object, complement, or topic) of a noun in a sentence or clause. For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean particles.

Case clitics

Case clitics (격조사(格助詞) gyeok-josa) are clitics that mark the grammatical function of the word. Both nouns and pronouns take case clitics. Pronouns are somewhat irregular. As with many clitics and suffixes in Korean, for many case clitics different forms are used with nouns ending in consonants and nouns ending in vowels. The most extreme example of this is in the nominative (subject), where the historical clitic i 이 is now restricted to appearing after consonants, and a completely unrelated (suppletive) form ga appears after vowels.

• nominative – 이/가 i/ga for the subject, 께서 kkeseo for the subject who is respected
• genitive – 의 ui
• locative – 에 e "to" place or "in" place (e.g. "go to the hospital" or "I am in the hospital")

• locative 2 – 에서 eseo "at" place or "from" place (e.g. "I work at the hospital" or "I came from Korea")
• dative – 에게 ege "to" someone, 한테 hante "to" someone in a casual manner, 께 kke "to" someone who is respected
• ablative – 에게서 egeseo "from" someone, 한테서 hanteseo "from" someone in a casual manner, 께서 kkeseo "from" someone who is respected

• accusative – 을/를 eul/reul for the direct object
• lative – 로/으로 ro/euro "onto" something or "with" something (e.g. "it is moving toward the city" or "I wrote with a pen")

• instrumental – 로써/으로써 rosseo/eurosseo "with" something
• essive – 로서/으로서 roseo/euroseo being "as" something (e.g. "as a teacher, I will help you")
• ablative 2 – 로부터/으로부터 robuteo/eurobuteo something "from" source or origin (e.g. "modern cars are developed from carriages")

• comitative – 와/과 wa/gwa, 랑/이랑 rang/irang, 하고 hago together "with" someone or something
• vocative – 아/야 a/ya, 여/이여 yeo/iyeo "hey" someone being addressed

Informational clitics

Informational clitics (보조사(補助詞) bo-josa) provide additional meanings to the words that they attach to. They may override the case clitics, or be placed after other clitics.

* The topic and additive markers mark the noun phrase with case markers. They override the nominative and accusative case markers rather than being attached after those case markers.

Nouns

Korean nouns 명사(名詞) myeongsa (also called 이름씨 ireumssi) do not have grammatical gender, and though they can be made plural by adding the suffix 들 deul to the end of the word, in general the suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three apples" would use the plural "apples" instead of the singular "apple", the Korean sentence 사과가 세 개 있습니다 Sagwaga se gae itseumnida "(lit.) apple three(things) exist" keeps the word 사과 sagwa "apple" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant. As Korean is a language with no grammatical gender, nouns do not have to agree with verbs.^[4] The only agreement needed for Korean nouns would be the object and subject particles (이/가, 을/를, 은/는) added depending on if the noun ends in a vowel or consonant.

The most basic, fundamental Korean vocabulary is native to the Korean language, e.g. 나라 nara "country", 날 nal "day". However, a large body of Korean nouns stem from the Korean pronunciation of Chinese characters e.g. 산(山) san "mountain", 역(驛) yeok "station", 문화(文化) munhwa "culture", etc. Many Sino-Korean words have native Korean equivalents and vice versa, but not all. The choice of whether to use a Sino-Korean noun or a native Korean word is a delicate one, with the Sino-Korean alternative often sounding more profound or refined. It is in much the same way that Latin- or French-derived words in English are used in higher-level vocabulary sets (e.g. the sciences), thus sounding more refined – for example, the native Germanic "ask" versus Romance "inquire".

Pronouns

Korean pronouns 대명사(代名詞) daemyeongsa (also called 대이름씨 dae-ireumssi) are highly influenced by the honorifics in the language. Pronouns change forms depending on the social status of the person or persons spoken to, e.g. for the first person singular pronoun "I" there are both the informal 나 na and the honorific/humble 저 jeo. In general, second-person singular pronouns are avoided, especially when using honorific forms. Third-person pronouns are not well developed, and in most cases, a demonstrative 그 geu "that" in combination with a noun such as 사람 saram "person" or 것 geot "thing" is used to fill the gap. Also, only for translation and creative writing, a newly coined term, 그녀 geu-nyeo (literally, "that woman"), is used aphoristically to refer to a female third person. A gender-neutral third person is covered by the demonstrative 그 geu (originally "that"). For a larger list of Korean pronouns, see wikt:Category:Korean pronouns.

Numerals

Korean numerals 수사(數詞) susa (also called 셈씨 semssi) include two regularly used sets: a native Korean set and a Sino-Korean set. The Sino-Korean system is nearly entirely based on the Chinese numerals. The distinction between the two numeral systems is very important. Everything that can be counted will use one of the two systems, but seldom both. The grouping of large numbers in Korean follows the Chinese tradition of myriads (10,000) rather than thousands (1,000) as is common in Europe and North America.

Processual verbs

Korean 동사(動詞) dongsa (also called 움직씨 umjikssi) which include 쓰다 sseuda "to use" and 가다 gada "to go", are usually called, simply, "verbs." However, they can also be called "action verbs" or "dynamic verbs," because they describe an action, process, or movement. This distinguishes them from 형용사(形容詞) hyeongyongsa.

Korean verb conjugation depends upon the tense, aspect, mood, and the social relation between the speaker, the subject(s), and the listener(s). Different endings are used depending on the speaker's relation with their subject or audience. Politeness is a critical part of the Korean language and Korean culture; the correct verb ending must be chosen to indicate the proper degree of respect or familiarity for the situation.

Descriptive verbs

형용사(形容詞) hyeongyongsa (also called 그림씨 geurimssi), sometimes translated as "adjectives" but also known as "descriptive verbs" or "stative verbs", are verbs such as 예쁘다 yeppeuda, "to be pretty" or 붉다 bukda, "to be red". English does not have an identical grammatical category, and the English translation of a Korean hyeongyongsa is usually a linking verb + an English adjective. However, some Korean words which do not match that formula, such as 아쉽다 aswipda, a transitive verb which means "to lack" or "to want for", are still considered hyeongyongsa in Korean because they match the conjugation pattern for adjectives. For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean adjectives.

Copulative and existential verbs

The predicate marker 이다 (i-ta, ida, "to be") serves as the copula, which links the subject with its complement, that is, the role 'to be' plays in English. For example, 대나무는 풀이다 (Taynamwu-nun phwul-i-ta, Daenamuneun purida, "A bamboo is a grass") When the complement, which is suffixed by i-ta, ends in a vowel, i-ta contracts into -ta quite often as in following example, 우리는 친구다 (Wuli-nun chinkwu-ta, Urineun chinguda, "We are friends.") The past tense of 이다 is 이었다 (i-ess-ta, ieotda, "was"). However, if it is attached after a vowel, it is always contracted into 였다 (yess-ta, yeotda, "was"). If not, it cannot be contracted.

To negate, a special adjective 아니다 (ani-ta, anida, "to not be") is used, being one of the two cases that take complement, the other being 되다 (toy-ta, doeda). Two nouns take the nominative clitic 이/가 (i/ka, i/ga) before the negative copula; one is the subject, and the other is the complement. For instance, in 대나무는 나무가 아니다 (Taynamwu-nun namwu-ka ani-ta, Daenamuneun namuga anida, "A bamboo is not a tree."), 대나무는 (taynamwu-nun, daenamuneun) is the subject and 나무가 (namwu-ka, namuga) is the complement. The derived form 아니요 (aniyo, aniyo) is the word for "no" when answering a positive question.

이다 and 아니다 become 이야 (i-ya, iya), often 야 (ya, ya) after a vowel and 아니야/아냐 (ani-ya/anya, aniya/anya) at the end of the sentence in 해체 (haeche, "informal, non-polite speech level") form. In 해요체 (haeyoche. "informal, polite speech level") form, they become 이에요 (i-ey-yo, ieyo), often 예요 (yey-yo, yeyo) after a vowel and 아니에요/아녜요 (ani-ey-yo/anyey-yo, anieyo/anyeyo) as well as the less common forms 이어요/여요 (i-e-yo/ye-yo, ieoyo/yeoyo) and 아니어요/아녀요 (ani-e-yo/anye-yo, anieoyo/anyeoyo).

The copula is only for "to be" in the sense of "A is B". For existence, Korean uses the existential verbs (or adjectives) 있다 (iss-ta, itda, "there is") and 없다 (eps-ta, eopda, "there isn't"). The honorific existential verb for 있다 is 계시다 (kyeysi-ta, gyesida).

Supporting verbs/adjectives

Sometimes, just using an adverb is insufficient to express the exact meaning the speaker has in mind. The composition of a main verb (or adjective) and a supporting verb (or adjective) can be used in this case, alongside some grammatical features. Suffixes including -아/어 -a/eo, -게 -ge, -지 -ji, and -고 -go are taken by the main verb (or adjective), and the supporting verb (or a.) follows it and is conjugated.

Determinatives

Korean 관형사(冠形詞) gwanhyeongsa (also called 매김씨 maegimssi) are known in English as "determiners," "determinatives," "pre-nouns," "adnouns," "attributives," "unconjugated adjectives," and "indeclinable adjectives." Gwanhyeongsa come before and modify or specify nouns, much like attributive adjectives or articles in English. Examples include 각(各) gak, "each." Determiners also negate the use of pronouns in day to day sentences which also makes Korean a more ambiguous and context driven language.^[4] For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean determiners.

Adverbs

Korean adverbs 부사(副詞) busa (also called 어찌씨 eojjissi) include 또 tto "again" and 가득 gadeuk "fully". Busa, like adverbs in English, modify verbs. For a longer list, see wikt:Category:Korean adverbs.

Exclamations

Korean interjections 감탄사(感歎詞) gamtansa (also called 느낌씨 neukkimssi) as are also known in English as "exclamations". Examples include 아니 ani "not". For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean interjections.

Noun clauses

Followed by noun clause marker -(으)ㅁ -(eu)m or -기 -gi, a sentence can serve as a noun. The markers are attached to the last verb of the sentence. For example, if you want to include a sentence 그가 갑자기 떠났다. (Ku-ka kapcaki ttena-ss-ta., Geuga gapjagi tteonatda., "He left all of a sudden.") into another sentence 무언가를 친구가 나에게 알려 주었다. (Mwuenka-lul chinkwu-ka na-eykey ally-e cwu-e-ss-ta., Mueongareul chinguga na-ege allyeo jueotda., "My friend informed me of something."), then the verb 떠났다 (ttena-ss-ta, tteonatda) combines with -(으)ㅁ (-(u)m, -(eu)m) to make a noun clause 떠났음 (ttena-ss-um, tteonasseum): the resulting sentence is 그가 갑자기 떠났음을 친구가 나에게 알려 주었다. (Ku-ka kapcaki ttena-ss-um-ul chinkwu-ka na-eykey ally-e cwu-e-ss-ta., Geuga gapjagi tteonasseumeul chinguga na-ege allyeo jueotda., "My friend informed me that he left all of a sudden.").

Note that -(으)ㅁ -(eu)m is used in more formal settings, meanwhile -기 -gi is used casually.

• 나는 그가 이미 죽었음을 몰랐다. "I didn't know that he was already dead."
• 그녀가 범인임은 명백하다. "That she is the criminal is clear."
• 일하기(가) 싫다. "I don't feel like working."
• 먹기(에) 좋게 자른 채소 "vegetables chopped for the convenience of eating"

Adjective clauses

This is the most widely used subordinate clause, even substituting the aforementioned noun clause by taking part in the form -는 것 -neun geot "the thing which". -는 -neun marks the present tense, -(으)ㄹ -(eu)l stands for the future tense, and -(으)ㄴ -(eu)n and -던 -deon are for the past tense, though -(eu)l also acts without meaning any tense as in -ㄹ 때 (-l ttae "when"). See Korean verbs.

• 저번에 우리 서울 올라갔을 때 치킨 먹었던 데 기억나냐? "Do you remember where we had chicken when we were in Seoul?"
• 내가 살던 고향은 꽃 피는 산골 "My homeland where I lived was a mountain town in which flowers bloomed."

Accompanied by several dependent nouns, adjective clauses can comprise idiomatic expressions, such as -ㄹ 것이다 -l kkeos-ida for the future conjugation, -ㄹ 것 같다 -l kkeot gatda, "I suppose...", -ㄹ 수(가) 있다/없다 -l ssu(ga) itda/eopda "It is possible/impossible...", -ㄹ 리가 없다 -l liga eopda "It makes no sense that..."

• 그는 여태 한 번도 늦은 적이 없었다. 오늘 역시 그는 제 시간에 올 것이다. "He has never been late so far. Today, as usual, he'll be on time."

Adverb clauses

Endings like -이 -i, -게 -ge, -도록 -dorok, and so forth derive adverbial clauses. -이 -i is not commonly used in making clauses except for 없이 eops-i "without"; -게 -ge is in common use in this sense instead.

• 그는 말 없이 나를 쳐다보았다. "He looked at me without a word."
• 물 먹게 그릇 좀 다오. "Please bring a cup for me; I need some water."
• 재미 있게 노는 아이들 "children playing with fun"
• 황금 보기를 돌 보듯 하라. "See gold as if seeing a stone."

A lot of caution is needed when faced with -게 하다 -ge hada and -게 되다 -ge doeda, which may mean just "do -ly" and "become sth -ly", but also can make causative and passive verbs, respectively, which consist of main and supportive verbs.

• 정원을 아름답게 하다 (causative) ↔ 발레를 아름답게 하다 (adverbial; causative if intended)
• 방이 깔끔하게 되다 (passive) ↔ 격파가 깔끔하게 되다 (adverbial; passive if intended)

Verbal clauses

Usually in the form 무엇은 무엇이 어떻다, the whole clause serves as one adjective predicate. Just look at the examples.

• 토끼는 귀가 크고, 기린은 목이 길다. "A rabbit has big ears and a giraffe has a long neck.", or word-for-word, "A rabbit is big-eared, and a giraffe is long-necked."
• 라면은 값도 싸고 맛도 좋지만 건강에는 좋지 않다. "Instant ramen is cheap and tasty but not healthy."
• 나는 배가 좋건만 친구는 사과를 사 왔다. "I like pears, but my friend appeared with apples."

It is also important to note that with this examples, the dictionary form of verbs are being used. When speaking to another person, take note of the language's honor system in order to show respect and use the correct verb forms. There is an honorification agreement with Korean's syntax system that must always be in mind when speaking to another.^[4]

Quotation clauses

Although the example above 그가 갑자기 떠났음을 친구가 내게 알려 주었다. might be used in a novel, it is unbearably awkward to say in more-general situations. Quotation clauses as in 내 친구가 "걔 갑자기 가 버리데."라고 하더라. (direct quotation) or in 내 친구도 걔가 갑자기 가 버렸다고 하더라. (indirect quotation) are used instead. The particle (이)라고 (i)rago is for direct quotation, and the verb endings like -다고 -dago, -(느)냐고 -(neu)nyago, -라고 -rago, and -자고 -jago are used for indirect quotation, for declarative, interrogative, imperative, and suggesting sentences respectively. Exceptionally, sentences employing a verbal particle 이다 ida and an adjective 아니다 anida are suffixed with -rago in place of -dago for declarative ones.

• 뭐라고요? "What?" or "What did you say?"
• 경찰은 자세한 경위를 조사하고 있다고 밝혔다. "The police announced that they are investigating the details."

The last syllable -go is often dropped. Furthermore, if the verb hada means 'to say' and is right next to the syllable -go, then -고 하다 -go hada is abridged, becoming -다 -da, which of course can conjugate.

• 뭐라디? (뭐라고 하디?)
• 내가 뭐랬어. (내가 뭐라고 했어.) 괜히 기운만 빠졌네. "Do you remember what I said? You only got tired for nothing."