Conquest and colonization

Italy's representation of the takeover of Ottoman Tripolitania in 1911

A 1-lire airmail stamp, depicting an Arab horseman pointing to an airplane passing overhead.

Italian Tripolitania and Italian Cyrenaica were formed in 1911, during the conquest of Ottoman Tripolitania in the Italo-Turkish War.

Despite a major revolt by the Arabs, the Ottoman sultan ceded Libya to the Italians by signing the 1912 Treaty of Lausanne. The Italians made extensive use of the Savari, colonial cavalry troops raised in December 1912. These units were recruited from the Arab-Berber population of Libya following the initial Italian occupation in 1911–12. The Savari, like the Spahi or mounted Libyan police, formed part of the Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali della Libia (Royal Corps of Libyan Colonial Troops).

The memoirs of Francesco Crispi states the discussion of Tripoli during the Congress of Berlin.^[2] The discussion was halted as it was not a priority, however Italy's attention in the congress was focused on Tripoli.^[3] Their expansion into Tripoli, which they believed was their right, was reluctantly accepted by other European Powers.^[3] The Italian occupation of Tripoli was mentioned within the Italian press during the following years, Tripolitania was expecting Italian arrival.^[3]

Sheikh Sidi Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later King Idris I), of the Senussi, led Libyan resistance in various forms through the outbreak of the Second World War. After the Italian army invaded Cyrenaica in 1913 as part of their invasion of Libya, the Senussi Order fought back against them.^[4] When the Order's leader, Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi, abdicated his position, he was replaced by Idris, who was his cousin.^[5] Pressured to do so by the Ottoman Empire, Ahmed had pursued armed attacks against British military forces stationed in neighbouring Egypt. On taking power, Idris put a stop to these attacks.^[5]

Instead he established a tacit alliance with the British, which would last for half a century and accord his Order de facto diplomatic status.^[4] Using the British as intermediaries, Idris led the Order into negotiations with the Italians in July 1916.^[4] These resulted in two agreements, at al-Zuwaytina in April 1916 and at Akrama in April 1917.^[6] The latter of these treaties left most of inland Cyrenaica under the control of the Senussi Order.^[5] Relations between the Senussi Order and the newly established Tripolitanian Republic were acrimonious.^[7] The Senussi attempted to militarily extend their power into eastern Tripolitania, resulting in a pitched battle at Bani Walid in which the Senussi were forced to withdraw back into Cyrenaica.^[5]

The Royal Palace of Tripoli, designed by Italian colonial architect Meraviglia-Mantegazza in 1924.

Roman theatre of Sabratha, restored during the Italian rule

At the end of World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed an armistice agreement in which they ceded their claims over Libya to Italy.^[8] Italy however was facing serious economic, social, and political problems domestically, and was not prepared to re-launch its military activities in Libya.^[8] It issued statutes known as the Legge Fondamentale with both the Tripolitanian Republic in June 1919 and Cyrenaica in October 1919. These brought about a compromise by which all Libyans were accorded the right to a joint Libyan-Italian citizenship while each province was to have its own parliament and governing council.^[8] The Senussi were largely happy with this arrangement and Idris visited Rome as part of the celebrations to mark the promulgation of the settlement.^[8]

In October 1920, further negotiations between Italy and Cyrenaica resulted in the Accord of al-Rajma, in which Idris was given the title of the Emir of Cyrenaica and permitted to autonomously administer the oases around Kufra, Jalu, Jaghbub, Awjila, and Ajdabiya. As part of the Accord he was given a monthly stipend by the Italian government, who agreed to take responsibility for policing and administration of areas under Senussi control.^[8] The Accord also stipulated that Idris must fulfill the requirements of the Legge Fondamentale by disbanding the Cyrenaican military units, however he did not comply with this.^[8] By the end of 1921, relations between the Senussi Order and the Italian government had again deteriorated.^[8]

Following the death of Tripolitanian leader Ramadan Asswehly in August 1920, the Republic descended into civil war. Many tribal leaders in the region recognised that this discord was weakening the region's chances of attaining full autonomy from Italy, and in November 1920 they met in Gharyan to bring an end to the violence.^[9] In January 1922 they agreed to request that Idris extend the Sanui Emirate of Cyrenaica into Tripolitania in order to bring stability; they presented a formal document with this request on 28 July 1922.^[9] Idris' advisers were divided on whether he should accept the offer or not. Doing so would contravene the al-Rajma Agreement and would damage relations with the Italian government, who opposed the political unification of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania as being against their interests.^[9] Nevertheless, in November 1922 Idris agreed to the proposal.^[9] Following the agreement, Idris feared that Italy — under its new Fascist leader Benito Mussolini—would militarily retaliate against the Senussi Order, and so he went into exile in Egypt in December 1922.^[10]

Medina quarter of Tripoli in 1920s

Fighting intensified after the accession to power in Italy of the dictator Benito Mussolini. Due to the effective resistance of the Libyan people against Italy's so-called "pacification campaign", Italian colonization of the Ottoman provinces of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica was not initially successful and it was not until the early 1930s that the Kingdom of Italy took full control of the area.^[11]

Several reorganizations of the colonial authority had been made necessary because of armed Arab opposition, mainly in Cyrenaica. Between 1919 (17 May) to 1929 (24 January), the Italian government maintained the two traditional provinces, with separate colonial administrations. A system of controlled local assemblies with limited local authority was set up, but was revoked on 9 March 1927. In 1929, Tripoli and Cyrenaica were united as one colonial province. From 1931 to 1932, Italian forces under General Badoglio waged a punitive pacification campaign. Badoglio's successor in the field, General Rodolfo Graziani, accepted the commission from Mussolini on the condition that he was allowed to crush Libyan resistance unencumbered by the restraints of either Italian or international law. Mussolini reportedly agreed immediately and Graziani intensified the oppression.

Some Libyans continued to defend themselves, with the strongest voices of dissent coming from the Cyrenaica. Beginning in the first days of Italian colonization, Omar Mukhtar, a Senussi sheikh, organized and, for nearly twenty years, led Libyan resistance efforts. His example continued to inspire resistance even after his capture and execution on 16 September 1931. His face is currently printed on the Libyan ten dinar note in memory and recognition of his patriotism.

By 1934, Libyan indigenous resistance was effectively crushed. The new Italian governor Italo Balbo created the political entity called Italian Libya in the summer of that year.^{[lower-alpha 1]} The classical name "Libya" was revived as the official name of the unified colony. Then in 1937 the colony was split administratively into four provinces: Tripoli, Misrata, Benghazi, and Derna. The Fezzan area was called Territorio Sahara Libico and administered militarily."

Resistance

The Italian Fascist Party came to power in 1922, it was agreed that fraternising with local Libyan Leaders was a failure of the previous colonial practice.^[12] Instead, the fascists opted for to 'pacify' the local population.^[12] Their ideas was based upon racial supremacy and Social Darwinism. The belief in a hierarchy of races meant that the Italians therefore had a 'duty' to colonise African nations.^[12] This led to the subjugation of Libyans, as policies before 1922 were dismissed, such as the colonial official's push to "Italianise" its colony's education.^[12] For example, they censored Italian culture from the native population, banned education after the sixth grade and terminated teaching Italian in classrooms, replacing it with Arabic.^[12] Libyans were only allowed to work as Labourers.^[12] The banning of Italian in class was with the intention to 'protect' Italian culture, and exclude Libyans.

Pacification of Tripolitania and Fezzan

Benito Mussolini gave General Rodolfo Graziani responsibility for the pacification of Libya, due to previous success in the reoccupation of Tripolitania and Fezzan.^[12] Tripolitanian resistance was not as substantial, as various tribes cooperated with Italians.^[13] However, Graziani saw Cyrenaica as a problem due to the united force of Cyrenaican tribesmen and merchants.^[12] As well as 70 years worth of gathering with the religious and social movement, Sanusiyya.^[12] As a consequence they were able to forge a unified front that shared an anti-colonial, pan-Islamic ideology that successfully resisted colonialism.^[12]

Guerrilla warfare in 1924, by Shaykh Rida, brother of Sayyid Idris, was able to contain Italians, with a force of 2,00 to 6,000 tribalmen.^[14] In December 1925, an agreement between Great Britain cemented Italy's jurisdiction on Jaghbub and Kufra.^[14]This made guerrilla attacks more tortuous, as Italians established control by making it impossible for Rida to attack. The Italians did this by constructing fences across the border and patrolling with aircraft and cars.^[14] Shaykh Rida was arrested in January 1928 and exiled to Sicily.^[14]

The resistance was later led by 'Umar Al-Mukhtar. The Al-Mukhtar resistance notably included a network of spies in Italian enforced towns.^[12] It was estimated by Graziani that the native guerrillas numbered around 3.000 and they owned about 20,000 guns.^[12] Al-Mukhtar and the Cyrenacians had advantages over the Italians as they knew the terrain, and used the mountains and trails as a trump card.^[12] In 1931, Al-Mukhtar engaged in 250 attacks with the Italian army, Italian officials attempted to bribe 'Umar al-Mukhtar, with salary and retirement but were rejected.^[12]

Flag of the Tripolitanian Republic

Resistance in both Cyrenaica and Tripolitania was not uniquely based on religious motives but instead was a virtue of the colonial struggle, especially within Cyrenaica, they fought with both religious order and tribal support, the latter being immensely supportive.^[14] In 1915, Italian domination was declining, with forces being held only within coastal cities.^[14]On the 29th of April 1915, they experienced a heavy defeat at the battle of Gasr Bu Hadi, when a presumed ally Ramadan al-Suwayhli, defeated an Italian column.^[14]

The Italian defeat and engrossment with the war in Europe meant that Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were able to have political agency. Arab nationalism was trending, and after several attempts at regaining power in Tripolitania Al-Suwayhil was able to create the Tripolitanian Republic in 1918 with Ahmad Al-Murayyid of Tarhuna, Abd Al-Nabi Bilkhayr of Warfalla, Sulayman Al-Baruni.^[14] Al-Suwayhil's advisor was also Abd al-Rahman Azzam Bey, an Egyptian nationalist, who later became the first secretary general of the Arab League.^[14]The Tripolitanian Republic shortly failed after disagreements among rival factions and Italian pressures, however, it showed the first attempt at a republican government in the Arab world as well as the impact of resistance.^[15]

The resistance came to a stop with Umar Al-Mukhtar's capture on the 11th of September 1931, his trial ran personally by General Rodolfo Graziani.^[14]Within five days the trial ended with the public hanging of the Al-Mukhtar, Concluding the era of organised resistance.^[14]

Unification with Cyrenaica

Celebrations in Tripoli for the arrival of Governor Italo Balbo, January 1934

Italian Tripolitania and Italian Cyrenaica were formed in 1911, during the conquest of Ottoman Tripolitania in the Italo-Turkish War. In 1934, Italian Tripolitania became part of Italian Libya.

In December 1934, certain rights were guaranteed to autochthonous Libyans (later called by Benito Mussolini "Moslem Italians"^[16]) including individual freedom, inviolability of home and property, the right to join the military or civil administrations, and the right to freely pursue a career or employment.

In 1937, northern Tripolitania was split into Tripoli Province and Misrata Province. In 1939 Tripolitania was included in the 4th Shore of the Kingdom of Italy.

In early 1943 the region was invaded and occupied by the Allies; this was the end of the Italian colonial presence.

Italy tried unsuccessfully to maintain the colony of Tripolitania after World War II, but in February 1947 relinquished all Italian colonies in a Peace Treaty.

Legacy

The legacy of the unification of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica by the Italians in 1934 and their treatment of these regions throughout their fascist rule has been tied to the regionalism and conflict present in Libya today. The Italian colonial administration prioritised the economy and infrastructure in Tripolitania compared to Cyrenaica.^[13] They treated the population with less violence than Cyrenaica, whose population was halved due to forced deportation and concentration camps.^[13][17] Gaddafi continued this legacy of prioritising Tripolitania when important economic businesses were moved from Cyrenaica to Tripolitania, negatively impacting the region's economy, and when he removed significant leaders from the region from power.^[13] Consequently, people in Cyrenaica began to protest, however, they were repressed by Gaddafi's government.^[13] Various scholars agree that the origins of the recent regional conflicts and animosities in Libya between Tripolitania and Cyrenaica can be found in the Italian administration.^[18][13][19]

The legacy of Italian colonisation has led to significant anti-western sentiments across Tripolitania and all of Libya which, some scholars argue, were crucial for Gaddafi's legitimacy.^[19][18] Ahmida states that the "pan-Islamic culture" and anti-western nature of Gaddafi's revolution in Libya can be found in the Tripolitanian Republic, which formed in order to declare independence from the Italian colonists.^[19] This anti-western sentiment, according to Ahmida, is passed down through generations across Libya with tales of the hardship and suffering endured during colonisation.^[19]

In Italy the legacy of the colonisation of Tripolitania is less felt by the public, due to a phenomenon labelled "colonial amnesia".^[20][21] According to Visconti, the extent of the Italian public's understanding of colonisation in Tripolitania and the rest of Libya is either nothing at all, or that they "made the desert bloom" with their various infrastructure projects.^[20] However, there has been more coverage of the topic in Italy recently, with the opening of the Italo-African museum in 2021.^[20] Overall, scholars agree that there is a "lack of cultural trauma" regarding Italian colonisation in general, including its colonising efforts in Ethiopia and Eritrea.^[22]

Provinces

The Province of Tripoli (the most important in all Italian Libya) was subdivided into:

• Tripoli
• Zawiya
• Sugh el Giumaa
• Nalut
• Gharyan

Demography

A large number of Italian colonists moved to Tripolitania in the late 1930s. These settlers went primarily to the area of Sahel al-Jefara, in Tripolitania, and to the capital Tripoli. In 1939 there were in all Tripolitania nearly 60,000 Italians, most living in Tripoli (whose population was nearly 45% Italian).^[24] As a consequence, huge economic improvements arose in all coastal Tripolitania. For example, Italians created the Tripoli Grand Prix, an internationally renowned automobile race.^[25] Certain rights were guaranteed to autochthonous Libyans (later called by Benito Mussolini "Moslem Italians"^[16]) including individual freedom, inviolability of home and property, the right to join the military or civil administrations, and the right to freely pursue a career or employment.

The Second World War impacted the Italian demography in Tripolitania; some moved due to conscription in the Italian army, with their families evacuated back to the Italian homeland, and others were moved from Cyrenaica to Tripolitania by the government.^[26] After the war and the loss of Italian control over Libya, the Italian state was fearful of the oncoming influx of settlers returning to Italy as it lacked the capacity to accommodate them.^[26] Consequently, only Italians in particular circumstances were permitted by their government to repatriate, and many found themselves stuck. A letter written to the Italian Prime Minister stated that many Italians in Tripolitania had been unable to return due to these circumstances.^[26] This same letter describes how some requested the Italian government to send family members back to Tripolitania from Italy as they were split up during the war evacuations. The British helped mediate agreements which concluded that an equal number of people had to move to Tripolitania as those who moved back to Italy.^[26] There were, however, still reports of instances in which people made their own way to Tripolitania to join their family, regardless of these agreements.

Due to this inability to easily go back to Italy, alongside a process labelled the "colonial twilight", which refers to the slow process of decolonisation which took place throughout Libya, the Italian presence was felt for some time.^[26] However, it slowly dwindled and moved out of the rural areas and moved into Tripoli, until 1970. In this year, Gaddafi "expelled" the remaining Italians in Libya, bringing an end to the legacy of the colonial Italian presence in Tripolitania.^[26]