Money creation, or money issuance, is the process by which the money supply of a country, or of an economic or monetary region,[note 1] is increased. In most modern economies, money is created by both central banks and commercial banks. Money issued by central banks is termed reserve deposits and is only available for use by central bank accounts holders, which is generally large commercial banks and foreign central banks. Central banks can increase the quantity of reserve deposits directly, by engaging in open market operations or quantitative easing. However, the majority of the money supply used by the public for conducting transactions is created by the commercial banking system in the form of bank deposits. Bank loans issued by commercial banks expands the quantity of bank deposits.[1]

Money creation occurs when the amount of loans issued by banks increases relative to the repayment and default of existing loans. Governmental authorities, including central banks and other bank regulators, can use various policies, mainly setting short-term interest rates, to influence the amount of bank deposits created by commercial banks.[2]

Money supply

The term "money supply" commonly denotes the total, safe, financial assets that households and businesses can use to make payments or to hold as short-term investment.[3] The money supply is measured using the so-called "monetary aggregates", defined in accordance to their respective level of liquidity. In the United States, for example:

The money supply is understood to increase through activities by government authorities,[note 2] by the central bank of the nation,[note 3] and by commercial banks.[4]

Money creation by the central bank

Central banks

The authority through which monetary policy is conducted is the central bank of the nation. The official goals of a central bank may vary, according to the country or the region. In most developed countries, central banks conduct their monetary policy within an inflation targeting framework,[5] whereas the monetary policies of most developing countries' central banks target some kind of a fixed exchange rate system.[6]

The central bank is the banker of the government[note 4] and provides to the government a range of services at the operational level, such as managing the Treasury's single account, and also acting as its fiscal agent (e.g. by running auctions), its settlement agent, and its bond registrar.[7] A central bank cannot become insolvent in its own currency. However, a central bank can become insolvent in liabilities on foreign currency.[8]

Central banks operate in practically every nation in the world, with few exceptions.[9] There are some groups of countries, for which, through agreement, a single entity acts as their central bank, such as the organization of states of Central Africa, [note 5] which all have a common central bank, the Bank of Central African States; or monetary unions, such as the Eurozone, whereby nations retain their respective central bank yet submit to the policies of the central entity, the European Central Bank. Central banking institutions are generally independent of the government executive.[2] According to the Bank of England, more than 150 central banks were classed as independent in 2020.[10]

Monetary policy

Monetary policy is the process by which the monetary authority of a country, typically the central bank (or the currency board), manages the level of short-term interest rates[note 6][11] and influences the availability and the cost of credit in the economy,[12] as well as overall economic activity.[13]

The central bank's activities directly affect interest rates, through controlling the preferred policy interest rate of the central bank (in the US this is the Federal funds rate). By affecting the level of interest rates, the central bank indirectly affects investment, stock prices, private consumption and the public's demand for money, as well as net export via the national currency's exchange rate. The various channels through which aggregate demand is affected by changes in interest rates is known as the monetary transmission mechanism.[14]

Central banks usually conduct monetary policy either through administratively setting interest rates or through open market operations.[15] Lowering interest rates or purchasing debt (resulting in an increase in bank reserves) is called monetary expansion or monetary easing, whereas the opposite is known as monetary contraction or tightening. An extraordinary process of monetary easing is denoted as quantitative easing, whose intent is to stimulate the economy by increasing liquidity and promoting bank lending.

Open-market operations

Open-market operations (OMOs) concern the purchase and sale of securities in the open market by a central bank. OMOs essentially swap one type of financial assets for another; when the central bank buys bonds held by the banks or the private sector, bank reserves increase while bonds held by the banks or the public decrease. Temporary operations are typically used to address reserve needs that are deemed to be transitory in nature, while permanent operations accommodate the longer-term factors driving the expansion of the central bank's balance sheet. Traditionally, such a primary factor has been the trend growth of currency (notes and coins) in circulation. Among the temporary, open-market operations are repurchase agreements (repos) or reverse repos, while permanent ones involve outright purchases or sales of securities.[16] Each open-market operation by the central bank affects its balance sheet.[16]

Physical currency

The central bank, or other competent, state authorities (such as the treasury), are typically empowered to create new, physical currency, i.e. paper notes and coins, in order to meet the needs of commercial banks for cash withdrawals, and to replace worn and/or destroyed currency.[17]

In modern economies, relatively little of the supply of broad money is in physical currency.[note 7] In the United Kingdom, deposit money outweighs the central bank issued currency by a factor of more than 30 to 1. In the United States, where the country's currency has a special international role being used in many transactions around the world, legally as well as illegally, the ratio is still more than 8 to 1.[18]

Role of commercial banks

When commercial banks lend money, they expand the amount of bank deposits.[19] The banking system can expand the money supply of a country beyond the amount created by the central bank, creating most of the broad money in a process called the multiplier effect.[19]

Banks are limited in the total amount they can lend by their capital adequacy ratios and, in countries that impose required reserve ratios, also by these. Reserve requirements oblige commercial banks to keep a minimum, predetermined, percentage of their deposits at an account at the central bank. Many countries in the world, including the United States, Australia, Canada and New Zealand, do not impose minimum reserve requirements on banks. This does not allow commercial banks to lend without limit, however, since there is still, aside from other considerations, the capital adequacy ratio.

Ultimate control of the money supply

Whereas central banks can directly control the issuance of physical currency, the question to what extent they can control broad monetary aggregates like M2 by also indirectly controlling the money creation of commercial banks is more controversial.[20] According to the money multiplier theory, which is often cited in macroeconomics textbooks, the central bank controls the money multiplier because it can impose reserve requirements, and consequently via this mechanism also governs the amount of money created by commercial banks.[20][21] Most central banks in developed countries, however, have ceased to rely on this theory and stopped shaping their monetary policy through required reserves.[20] Benjamin Friedman explains in his chapter on the money supply in The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics that the money multiplier representation is a short-hand simplification of a more complex equilibrium of supply and demand in the markets for both reserves (outside money) and inside money. Friedman adds that the simplification will work well or badly "depending on the strength of the relevant interest elasticities and the extent of variation in interest rates and the many other factors involved".[18] David Romer notes in his graduate textbook "Advanced Macroeconomics" that it is difficult for central banks to control broad monetary aggregates like M2.[22]: 607–608 

Monetarist theory, which was prominent during the 1970s and 1980s, argued that the central bank should concentrate on controlling the money supply through its monetary operations.[23] The strategy did not work well for the central banks like the Federal Reserve who tried it, however, and it was abandoned after some years, central banks turning to steer interest rates to obtain their monetary policy goals rather than holding the quantity of base money fixed in order to steer money growth.[24]: 464–465  Interest rates influence commercial bank issuance of credit indirectly, so the ceiling implied by the money multiplier does not impose a limit on money creation in practice.[25] By setting interest rates, central-bank operations will affect, but not control the money supply.[19][note 8]

Credit theory of money

The fractional reserve theory where the money supply is limited by the money multiplier has come under increased criticism since the financial crisis of 2007–2008. It has been observed that the bank reserves are not a limiting factor because the central banks supply more reserves than necessary[26] and because banks have been able to build up additional reserves when they were needed. Many economists and bankers now believe that the amount of money in circulation is limited only by the demand for loans, not by reserve requirements.[27][28][19]

The observation that there appears to be no limit to the amount of credit money that banks can bring into circulation in this way has given rise to the often-heard expression that "Banks are creating money out of thin air".[26] The exact mechanism behind the creation of commercial bank money has been a controversial issue.

The credit theory of money, initiated by Joseph Schumpeter, asserts the central role of banks as creators and allocators of the money supply, and distinguishes between "productive credit creation" (allowing non-inflationary economic growth even at full employment, in the presence of technological progress) and "unproductive credit creation" (resulting in inflation of either the consumer- or asset-price variety).[29]

The model of bank lending stimulated through central-bank operations (such as "monetary easing") has been rejected by Neo-Keynesian[note 9][30] and Post-Keynesian analysis[31][32] as well as central banks.[33][34][note 10] The major argument offered by dissident analysis is that any bank balance-sheet expansion (e.g. through a new loan) that leaves the bank short of the required reserves may affect the return it can expect on the loan, because of the extra cost the bank will undertake to return within the ratios limits – but this does not and "will never impede the bank's capacity to give the loan in the first place". Banks first lend and then cover their reserve ratios: The decision whether or not to lend is generally independent of their reserves with the central bank or their deposits from customers; banks are not lending out deposits or reserves, anyway. Banks lend on the basis of lending criteria, such as the status of the customer's business, the loan's prospects, and/or the overall economic situation.[35]

In accordance to "credit mechanics" bank money expansion or destruction (or not changing) depends on payment flows.

Bank of England tells us in 2019: "Most of the money in the economy is created by banks when they provide loans.",[36] but not every provided loan is heightening bank money amount. It depends on payment flows after given loans.[37] (see table by Decker/Goodhart [2021] beside).

Monetary financing

Policy

"Monetary financing", also "debt monetization", occurs when the country's central bank purchases government debt.[38] It is considered by mainstream analysis to cause inflation, and often hyperinflation.[39] IMF's former chief economist Olivier Blanchard states that:

governments do not create money; the central bank does. But with the central bank's cooperation, the government can in effect finance itself by money creation. It can issue bonds and ask the central bank to buy them. The central bank then pays the government with money it creates, and the government in turn uses that money to finance the deficit. This process is called debt monetization.[40]

The description of the process differs in heterodox analysis. Modern chartalists state:

the central bank does not have the option to monetize any of the outstanding government debt or newly issued government debt...[A]s long as the central bank has a mandate to maintain a short-term interest rate target, the size of its purchases and sales of government debt are not discretionary. The central bank's lack of control over the quantity of reserves underscores the impossibility of debt monetization. The central bank is unable to monetize the government debt by purchasing government securities at will because to do so would cause the short-term target rate to fall to zero or to any support rate that it might have in place for excess reserves.[41]

Restrictions

Monetary financing used to be standard monetary policy in many countries, such as Canada or France,[42] while in others it was and still is prohibited. In the Eurozone, Article 123 of the Lisbon Treaty explicitly prohibits the European Central Bank from financing public institutions and state governments.[43] In Japan, the nation's central bank "routinely" purchases approximately 70% of state debt issued each month,[44] and owns, as of Oct 2018, approximately 440 trillion JP¥ (approx. $4trillion)[note 11] or over 40% of all outstanding government bonds.[45] In the United States, the 1913 Federal Reserve Act allowed federal banks to purchase short-term securities directly from the Treasury, in order to facilitate its cash-management operations. The Banking Act of 1935 prohibited the central bank from directly purchasing Treasury securities, and permitted their purchase and sale only "in the open market". In 1942, during wartime, Congress amended the Banking Act's provisions to allow purchases of government debt by the federal banks, with the total amount they'd hold "not [to] exceed $5 billion". After the war, the exemption was renewed, with time limitations, until it was allowed to expire in June 1981.[46]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Such as the Eurozone or ECCAS
  2. ↑ "A [state budget] deficit will lead to a direct rise in the money supply if the...Treasury finances the deficit not by borrowing but by drawing down balances it holds at commercial banks or [the central bank]." From Cacy (1975)
  3. ↑ See "Money multiplier"
  4. ↑ Formally, the Treasury's banker, or the banker of the respective competent authority, depending on the country, e.g. of the Ministry of Finance
  5. ↑ Established by Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon
  6. ↑ It has been argued that the central bank of a fiscally and monetarily sovereign nation can actually affect, if not dictate, the whole interest spectrum – above which, of course, as it is argued, adjustments are made for their actual conduct of business by commercial banks and the private sector, in accordance to their assessments, objectives, and preferences. E.g.: "Monetary policy – and there we are increasingly certain – cannot only influence the expectations component, but also the term premium. ... Central banks can lower long-term rates by removing duration risk from the market." Cœuré (2017). Also: "There is no evidence that the central bank has any meaningful control over the...spread between the short-term and the long-term rate of interest [but] it is quite clear that the central bank has full control over the long-term rate of interest.
  7. ↑ For example, in December 2010, in the United States, of the $8.853 trillion broad money supply (M2, table 1), only about 10% (or $915.7 billion, table 3) consisted of coins and paper money. See Statistic, FRS
  8. ↑ "Another common misconception is that the central bank determines the quantity of loans and deposits in the economy by controlling the quantity of central bank money. ... Rather than controlling the quantity of reserves, central banks today typically implement monetary policy by setting the price of reserves — that is, interest rates." McLeay (2014)
  9. ↑ "By increasing the volume of their government securities and loans and by lowering Member Bank legal reserve requirements, the Reserve Banks can encourage an increase in the supply of money and bank deposits. Without taking drastic action, they can encourage but they cannot compel. For in the middle of a deep depression just when we want Reserve policy to be most effective, the Member Banks are likely to be timid about buying new investments or making loans. If the Reserve authorities buy government bonds in the open market and thereby swell bank reserves, the banks will not put these funds to work but will simply hold reserves."
  10. ↑ "In reality, neither are [bank] reserves a binding constraint on lending, nor does the central bank fix the amount of reserves that are available. ... Banks first decide how much to lend depending on the profitable lending opportunities available to them — which will, crucially, depend on the interest rate set by the [central bank]." McLeay et al. (2014)
  11. ↑ At a $1=¥0.0094 conversion rate

References

  1. ↑ Bell, Stephanie. "https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stephanie-Bell-3/publication/5208277_The_Role_of_the_State_and_the_Hierarchy_of_Money/links/5895102892851c8bb672d5f2/The-Role-of-the-State-and-the-Hierarchy-of-Money.pdf" (PDF). Research Gate. Cambridge Journal of Economics. Retrieved 29 December 2023. {{cite web}}: External link in |title= (help)
  2. 1 2 European Central Bank (20 June 2017). "What is money?". European Central Bank. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  3. ↑ Money supply, FRS
  4. ↑ Cœuré, Benoît (16 May 2017). "Dissecting the yield curve: a central bank perspective". Eurosystem. European Central Bank. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  5. ↑ Jahan, Sarwat. "Inflation Targeting: Holding the Line". International Monetary Funds, Finance & Development. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
  6. ↑ Department, International Monetary Fund Monetary and Capital Markets (26 July 2023). Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange Restrictions 2022. International Monetary Fund. ISBN 979-8-4002-3526-9. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
  7. ↑ Pessoa, Mario; Williams, Mike (November 2012). "Government Cash Management: Relationship between the Treasury and the Central Bank" (PDF). Fiscal Affairs Dept. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  8. ↑ Buiter, Willem H. (May 2008). "Can Central Banks Go Broke?". CEPR Policy Insight. No. 24. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
  9. ↑ List of central banks
  10. ↑ "The insidious threats to central-bank independence". The Economist. 15 December 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
  11. ↑ Pilkington, Philip (15 August 2014). "Does the Central Bank Control Long-Term Interest Rates?: A Glance at Operation Twist". Fixing the economists. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  12. ↑ Monetary policy, FRS
  13. ↑ IMF (3 November 2017) "Monetary Policy and Central Banking"
  14. ↑ "Federal Reserve Board - Monetary Policy: What Are Its Goals? How Does It Work?". Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. 29 July 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
  15. ↑ Baker, Nick; Rafter, Sally (16 June 2022). "An International Perspective on Monetary Policy Implementation Systems | Bulletin – June 2022". Reserve Bank of Australia. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
  16. 1 2 "Open market operations". www.federalreserve.gov. 10 May 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
  17. ↑ Mankiw (2012)
  18. 1 2 Friedman, Benjamin M. (2017). "Money Supply". The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 1–10. doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_875-2. ISBN 978-1-349-95121-5.
  19. 1 2 3 4 McLeay, Michael; Radia, Amar; Thomas, Ryland (2014). "Money creation in the modern economy" (PDF). Quarterly Bulletin. Bank of England. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  20. 1 2 3 Ábel, István; Lehmann, Kristóf; Tapaszti, Attila (June 2016). "The controversial treatment of money and banks in macroeconomics" (PDF). Financial and Economic Review. 15 (2): 33–58. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
  21. ↑ Ihrig, Jane; Weinbach, Gretchen C.; Wolla, Scott A. (September 2021). "Teaching the Linkage Between Banks and the Fed: R.I.P. Money Multiplier". research.stlouisfed.org. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
  22. ↑ Romer, David (2019). Advanced macroeconomics (Fifth ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-1-260-18521-8. The measures of the money stock that the central bank can control tightly, such as high-powered money, are not closely linked to aggregate demand. And the measures of the money stock that are sometimes closely linked with aggregate demand, such as M2, are difficult for the central bank to control.
  23. ↑ Jahan, Sarwat; Papageorgiou, Chris (March 2014). "What Is Monetarism?" (PDF). Finance & Development. IMF. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  24. ↑ Blanchard, Olivier; Amighini, Alessia; Giavazzi, Francesco (2017). Macroeconomics: a European perspective (3rd ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-1-292-08567-8.
  25. ↑ Hubbard & O'Brien. "Chapter 25, Monetary Policy". Economics. p. 943.
  26. 1 2 Standard & Poor's (13 August 2013) "Repeat after me: Banks cannot and do not lend out reserves", Ratings Direct
  27. ↑ Benes, Jaromir; Kumhof, Michael (2012). "The Chicago Plan Revisited". IMF Working Paper. 202.
  28. ↑ Kumhof, Michael; Jakab, Zoltán (2016). "The Truth about Banks". Finance & Development. 53 (1): 50–53.
  29. ↑ Schumpeter, Joseph A. (1996) [1954]. History of Economic Analysis. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195105599.
  30. ↑ Samuelson, Paul (1997) [1948]. Economics. McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0070747418.
  31. ↑ Kelton, née Bell, Stephanie (1998). "The Hierarchy of Money". The Jerome Levy Economics Institute. SSRN 96845.
  32. ↑ Mitchell, William (21 April 2009). "Money multiplier and other myths". Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  33. ↑ Tucker, Paul (2007). "Money and credit: Banking and the Macroeconomy" (PDF). Bank of England.
  34. ↑ Disyatat, Piti (February 2010). "The bank lending channel revisited" (PDF). BIS Working Papers. Bank of International Settlements. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  35. ↑ Wray, L. Randall (1 September 2000). "Money and Inflation". University of Missouri-Kansas City. SSRN 1010331.
  36. ↑ BoE (2019): How is money created
  37. ↑ Frank Decker, Charles A.E. Goodhart: Wilhelm Lautenbach’s credit mechanics – a precursor to the current money supply debate, Taylor & Francis, 2021, DOI=10.1080/09672567.2021.1963796.
  38. ↑ Mishkin, Frederic S. (2011) [2002]. The economics of money, banking and financial markets (PDF) (4th ed.). Canada: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-58471-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-03-10. Retrieved 2018-03-11.
  39. ↑ Elmendorf, Douglas W.; Mankiw, N. Gregory (January 1998). "The bank lending channel revisited" (PDF). Handbook of Macroeconomicss. Harvard University. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  40. ↑ Blanchard, Olivier; David R. Johnson, David R. Johnson (2012). Macroeconomics (6th ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0133061635.
  41. ↑ Mitchell, William; Muysken, Joan (2008). Full Employment Abandoned: Shifting Sands and Policy Failures. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85898-507-7.
  42. ↑ Ryan-Collins, Josh (25 October 2015). "Is Monetary Financing Inflationary? A Case Study of the Canadian Economy, 1935–75". Levy Economics Institute. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  43. ↑ Fiscal policies, ECB
  44. ↑ Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose (10 August 2013). "Japan's Debt Has Officially Passed ¥1,000,000,000,000,000 — No Problem". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  45. ↑ Gov't Bonds, Bank of Japan
  46. ↑ Garbade, Kenneth D. (August 2014). "Direct Purchases of U.S. Treasury Securities by Federal Reserve Banks" (PDF). FRBNY Staff Reports no. 684.

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