Viceroy of Hejaz and foreign minister

Prince Faisal was appointed viceroy of Hejaz on 9 February 1926 following his father's takeover of the region.^[24][25][26] He often consulted with local leaders during his tenure.^[27] Faisal was the president of the Consultative Assembly and the minister of interior.^[28] In December 1931, following the announcement of the constitution of the Council of Deputies (Majlis al Wukala), he also became the president of the four-member council and minister of foreign affairs.^[28] He would continue to oversee Saudi foreign policy until his death—even as king, with only a two-year break^[29] between 1960 and 1962.^[25]

With Prince Khalid in Washington, D.C., 1943

Faisal visited several countries in this period, including Iran in May 1932,^[30] Poland in 1932 and Russia in 1933.^[31][32] On 8 July 1932 he visited Turkey and met with President Kemal Atatürk.^[33] On 23 September 1932, the prince officially announced the establishment of Saudi Arabia on behalf of his father from Al Hamidiyah Palace in Mecca by reading out the royal decree that renamed the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.^[34][35] Faisal commanded a campaign during the Saudi–Yemeni War in 1934, resulting in a Saudi victory.^[25] He and his half-brother Khalid visited the US in October 1943 following the invitation of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.^[36] This is one of the early contacts between Saudi Arabia and the US.^[36]

As King Abdulaziz neared the end of his life, he favored Faisal as a possible successor over his eldest living son, Crown Prince Saud, due to Faisal's extensive knowledge, as well as his years of experience. Since Faisal was a child, Abdulaziz recognized him as the most brilliant of his sons and often tasked him with responsibilities in war and diplomacy. In addition, Faisal was known to embrace a simple Bedouin lifestyle. "I only wish I had three Faisals", Abdulaziz once said when discussing who would succeed him.^[37] However, Abdulaziz made the decision to keep Saud as crown prince in the fear that otherwise would lead to decreased stability.^[38]

Abolition of slavery

Slavery did not vanish in Saudi Arabia until Faisal issued a decree for its total abolition in 1962. BBC presenter Peter Hobday stated that about 1,682 slaves were freed at that time, at a cost to the government of $2,000 each.^[56] The political analyst Bruce Riedel argued that the US began to raise the issue of slavery after the meeting between King Abdulaziz and US president Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1945 and that John F. Kennedy finally persuaded the House of Saud to abolish slavery in 1962.^[57]

Modernization

Early in his rule, Faisal issued an edict that all Saudi princes had to school their children inside the country, rather than sending them abroad; this had the effect of making it popular for upper-class families to bring their sons back to study in the Kingdom.^[64] He also introduced the country's current system of administrative regions, and laid the foundations for a modern welfare system. In 1970 he established the Ministry of Justice and inaugurated the country's first "five-year plan" for economic development.^[65]

One of Faisal's modernization attempts was the new laws on media, publishing, and archiving and bilateral cultural cooperation protocols with foreign and corporate archives that kept records about mid-twentieth century Arabia.^[45] Television broadcasts officially began in 1965. The same year a nephew of Faisal attacked the newly established headquarters of Saudi television but was killed by security personnel. The attacker was the brother of Faisal's future assassin, and the incident is the most widely accepted motive for the murder.^[66] Although there was some discontent with the social changes he carried out, the Arab world grew to respect Faisal as a result of his policies modernizing Saudi Arabia, his management of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, his reputation as a staunch opponent of Zionism, and the country's fast-rising financial strength.^[67]

Economic development

Faisal pursued strategies to maximize the utilization of oil revenue and initiated a thorough evaluation of the profit-sharing agreement with Aramco, which he deemed inequitable and requested its revision. Additionally, the government transitioned from engaging in oil reservoir exploitation agreements to exclusively granting oil investment concessions to state institutions.^[68] Following the declaration of bankruptcy within the government treasury, Faisal directed his focus towards revitalizing industrial, agricultural, financial, and economic enterprises, earning recognition for his instrumental role in the economic and administrative rejuvenation of the Kingdom.^[69]

Faisal took charge of formulating the nation's five-year plans and started setting up the structure of administrative regions. To bolster the capabilities of state service institutions, he enlisted the aid of foreign consulting firms. Furthermore, he actively participated in the development of industries, agriculture, project initiatives, land investments, and the exploration of natural resources and sources of potable water. Faisal played a pivotal role in the establishment of the Petromin Corporation and laid the foundation for a comprehensive network of power plants. Additionally, he spearheaded the creation of essential industries such as petrochemicals, iron, steel, cement, and mining. Recognizing the significance of skill development, Faisal advocated for sending students to Western countries for training, thereby contributing to the growth of industrial ventures. In 1969, the Kingdom initiated its inaugural development strategy.^[70] Faisal held a meeting with US president Lyndon B. Johnson in 1966, forging a Saudi-American alliance focused on collaborative endeavors for the advancement of the Kingdom. Subsequently, in 1971, Faisal engaged with President Richard Nixon during a meeting in Washington. Three years later, in 1973, the Joint Saudi-American Economic Committee was established. A milestone occurred in 1974 when Nixon became the first US president to visit Saudi Arabia.^[71][72]

Abha Dam, completed in 1974

Agricultural development

In 1965, the Ministry of Agriculture collaborated with multinational consulting firms to establish a comprehensive program for water exploration. This initiative aimed to systematically search for water resources by extraction. The Ministry dedicated its endeavors to enhance agricultural practices, promote livestock and fisheries, conserve plant species, combat desertification, and provide guidance to farmers for improving date production.^[68] Furthermore, it actively encouraged the commercial sector to invest in the packaging and preservation of dates. Several significant projects were successfully accomplished during this period, including the construction of the Jizan Dam in 1970, which was completed with the assistance of foreign corporations.^[68] In Al-Ahsa, a water-saving initiative was implemented through an irrigation and drainage project, aimed at conserving water from springs and wells while effectively utilizing any surplus. Dams were constructed in Abha, Al-Majma'ah, and along Wadi Hanifa near Riyadh to collect rainwater. Moreover, agricultural ventures were initiated in Tabuk Province, Al-Jawf Province, Wadi Sirhan, Al-Qassim Province, Al Aflaj Governorate, Wadi Bisha, and Najran Province.^[68] The Ministry also instructed the Agricultural Bank to offer loans to farmers and fishermen for the procurement of essential equipment, with the condition that the loans be repaid in interest-free, long-term installments.^[68]

Transportation development

Under his leadership, Faisal oversaw the extensive expansion of modern road networks throughout the Kingdom, enlisting the expertise of international companies for their implementation. These developments facilitated connections with neighboring countries such as Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Kuwait.^[68] Additionally, he prioritized the development of agricultural roads, enabling villages and farmers to transport their products to market efficiently. In the realm of aviation, airports were expanded and upgraded, while Saudi Arabian Airlines acquired jet planes to enhance their services.^[68] Notably, an institute for civil aviation training was established in Jeddah. In parallel, port traffic experienced significant growth, with the expansion of the Jeddah Islamic Port and the establishment of new ports in Yanbu and Jazan.^[68]

Inaugurating the College of Petroleum and Minerals, 1974

Education development

Education received paramount attention and underwent significant improvements during Faisal's reign. Reforms were implemented in the curricula, accompanied by an increase in foreign educational missions. Special provisions were made to financially support families who lacked resources to educate their children, emphasizing equal opportunities for both male and female students. Textbooks were distributed free of charge, eliminating any associated fees. In 1974, Faisal also directed the establishment of Imam Muhammad bin Saud Islamic University in Riyadh.^[73] Furthermore, in 1967, he established the King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah. In 1974, he ordered the Council of Ministers to merge the university with the government, converting it to a public university and offering free education to Saudi students.^[74] In 1975, the College of Petroleum and Minerals in Dhahran was converted into the King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals.^[75] Similarly, King Faisal University was established in Al-Ahsa in 1975, although it was inaugurated during the reign of his brother Khalid in 1977.^[76]

Faisal is recognized for his significant contributions to women's education in Saudi Arabia, starting from his time as crown prince. In 1956, he established the first regular government school for girls in the country, known as Dar Al Hanan. This school was established under the patronage of his wife Iffat. A major milestone occurred in 1960 when a royal order was issued during the reign of King Saud, leading to the establishment of the General Presidency for Girls Education. This marked the official beginning of women's education in Saudi Arabia, providing them with broader access to educational opportunities.^[77]

Health development

Medical professionals, including doctors and nursing staff, were recruited from various countries worldwide under the leadership of King Faisal. Recognizing the importance of healthcare, he issued an order to establish the King Faisal Specialist Hospital in Riyadh on land that he donated, which commenced its operations in 1975. Collaboration with the World Health Organization was fostered to develop government health programs.^[78] Notably, significant investments were allocated to the healthcare sector, with funding reaching 3.4% of the budget, aimed at advancing the foundational components of the healthcare system. In 1973 alone, the allocated budget for public health and social affairs amounted to 591 million riyals. The kingdom implemented a strategic planning system within its five-year plan from 1970 to 1975. The number of doctors increased to 1,020, health assistants rose to 3,750, hospital beds witnessed a 30% increase, dispensaries expanded by 60%, and the number of health centers grew to 200, reflecting the Kingdom's commitment to enhancing healthcare services.^[79]

A Saudi Arabian Lightning fighter on display at the gates of King Faisal Air Base in Tabuk, Saudi Arabia

A Saudi Arabian Mirage 5SDE tactical fighter in 1972

Military development

Upon ascending to the throne, Faisal devised a comprehensive strategy for the Royal Saudi Air Force that aligned with the prevailing needs and demands of the era. Recognizing the necessity of a distinguished institution capable of accommodating a substantial number of Saudi students and providing them with top-tier training, he embarked on the task of finding a suitable college. Consequently, the announcement regarding the establishment of the King Faisal Air Academy was made in 1967, and it officially commenced its operations three years later, specifically in 1970.^[80]

In December 1965, Faisal initiated a procurement of advanced weaponry and equipment, which included forty Lightning fighters. This consisted of 34 single-seat aircraft and 6 two-seat aircraft. Deliveries of these aircraft commenced on July 1, 1968, with two (F.Mk 53) aircraft taking off from Wharton and reaching Jeddah. The delivery process concluded in September 1969, with the receipt of the final aircraft manufactured, bearing the serial number (53-700), on June 29, 1972. The Lightning fighters remained in active service until January 1986.

In 1972, Faisal placed an order for 39 Mirage 5 aircraft from France. However, upon their arrival in the Kingdom in 1974, and before the Royal Saudi Air Force could utilize them, the King decided to donate the aircraft to Egypt in order to bolster their air force. Faisal undertook this gesture of support to assist Egypt in strengthening its military capabilities.^[81]

Steps against coups d'état

The 1950s and 1960s saw numerous coups d'état in the region. Muammar Gaddafi's coup that overthrew the monarchy in oil-rich Libya in 1969 was especially threatening for Saudi Arabia due to the similarity between the two sparsely-populated desert countries.^[84] As a result, Faisal undertook to build a sophisticated security apparatus and cracked down firmly on dissent. As in all affairs, he justified these policies in Islamic terms. Early in his reign, when faced with demands for a written constitution for the country, Faisal responded that "our constitution is the Qur'an".^[85] In the summer of 1969 he ordered the arrest of hundreds of military officers, including some generals,^[86] alleging that a military coup d'état was being planned. The coup was planned primarily by air force officers and aimed at overthrowing the monarchy and founding a Nasserist regime in the country.^[87] King Faisal claimed that Sami Sharaf, one of the Gamal Abdel Nasser's officials, was the planner of the plot.^[88] The arrests were possibly based on a tip from American intelligence.^[84]

Religious inclusiveness

With Egyptian imam and Quran reciter Abdul Basit 'Abd us-Samad, early 1970s

Faisal seemed to hold the pluralist view, favouring limited, cautious accommodation of popular demands for inclusive reform, and made repeated attempts to broaden political representation, harking back to his temporarily successful national integration policy from 1965 to 1975. The King acknowledged his country's religious and cultural diversity, which includes the predominantly Shia Al Ahsa in the east; the Asir in the southwest, with tribal affinities to Yemen, especially among the Ismaili tribes of Najran and Jizan; and the Kingdom of the Hejaz, with its capital Mecca. He included non-Wahhabi, cosmopolitan Sunni Hejazis from Mecca and Jeddah in the Saudi government.^[89] It was said that he would not take any decision regarding Mecca without seeking the advice of Sunni (Sufi) scholar al-Sayyid 'Alawi ibn 'Abbas al-Maliki al-Hasani, the father of Muhammad ibn 'Alawi al-Maliki.^[90] Similarly in 1962, in promoting a broader, non-sectarian form of pan-Islamism, Faisal launched the Muslim World League where the Tijani Sufi scholar Ibrahim Niass was invited.^[91] Furthermore, he countered the outlook of certain prior Saudi rulers in declaring to the Saudi state clergy that, "All Muslims, from Egypt, India etc. are your brothers".^[92] However Mai Yamani argued that after his reign, discrimination based on sect, tribe, region, and gender became the order of the day and has remained as such until today.^[89]

The role and authority of the state clergy declined after Faisal became king in 1964, even though they had helped bring him to the throne. Despite his piety and biological relationship through his mother to the Al as Shaykh family, and his support for the pan-Islamic movement in his struggle against pan-Arabism, he decreased the ulema's power and influence.^[93] Unlike his successor Khalid, Faisal attempted to prevent radical clerics from controlling religious institutions such as the Council of Senior Ulema, the highest religious institution in Saudi Arabia, or taking religious offices such as Grand Mufti, responsible for preserving Islamic law. But his advisers warned that, once religious zealots had been motivated, disastrous effects would result.^[49]

Due to his status as a pious Muslim, Faisal was able to implement careful social reforms such as female education. Despite this, religious conservatives staged large protests. By holding talks with the conservatives, he was able to persuade them of the importance of progress in the coming years by using their own logic.^[93][94]

Corruption in the royal family was taken very seriously by religious figures in the Islamic theological colleges. They challenged some of the accepted theological interpretations adopted by the Saudi regime. One such influential figure was Sheikh Abdulaziz Bin Baz, then rector of the Al Medina college of theology (later he would serve as the country's grand mufti). Faisal would not tolerate his criticism and had him removed from his position. However, the teachings of Bin Baz had already radicalized some of his students, one of which was Juhayman al-Otaybi.^[56]

Interest in holy sites

Visiting Palestine in 1966. During this time, he prayed in Al Aqsa Mosque.

The Saudi Binladin Group was tasked with expanding Masjid al-Haram, which would be the first substantial enlargement in a thousand years. This massive project began in 1955, during the reign of King Saud, and continued for twenty years during the reigns of King Faisal and King Khalid. In 1967, a conference in Mecca brought together a significant number of Muslim architects to discuss possible design alternatives. Faisal objected to the conference's recommendation to demolish a significant portion of the Ottoman structure, arguing that the Ottoman structure should be preserved and new architectural designs created using the best methods of convergence. A new phase of construction began in 1969 with the addition of two new wings and repairs to the sanctuary's existing structure. During this phase, the surrounding roadways were developed and the squares were installed. At the time, the project cost approximately 800 million Saudi riyals. In 1962, he also ordered the reopening of the Kaaba Cloth Factory in Mecca due to political tensions between Egypt (then called the United Arab Republic) and Saudi Arabia.^[95]

The Muslim World League planned to renovate Maqam Ibrahim in 1965, with the maqam housed inside a crystal pillar with a silver lid. Faisal agreed and issued an order putting the plan in motion. Buildings were demolished to make the circumambulation rituals easier. By 1967, the area around Maqam Ibrahim had grown, and crowds were able to perform the circumambulation rituals in comfort and ease.^[96]

In the case of the Prophet's Mosque, Faisal gave an order to construct prayer areas to the west of the mosque following the completion of the first Saudi expansion, which opened in 1955 and due to an increase in the number of pilgrims. It was built in 1973 and stood until the second Saudi expansion, when it was decommissioned. The Saudi Binladin Group was also sent to East Jerusalem in 1964 to perform restoration work on the Dome of the Rock.^[97]

Palestinian cause

With Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser (left) and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat (right) at the 1970 Arab League summit

After he became foreign minister, Prince Faisal was recognized for his support for the Palestinian cause. His involvement with the Palestinian cause began in 1938, when he represented his father in the London Conference on the Palestine issue, where he delivered an important address opposing the partition plan. He wrote a message to the Saudi people in 1948 in which he discussed the Palestinian struggle and the suffering of the Palestinian people.^[102]

The Saudi delegation was led by Faisal and his brother Khalid at the St. James Palace Conference, which Britain called for, inviting representatives of the Arabs of Palestine, neighboring Arab states, and the Jewish Agency to consult with the British government in London on the partition of Palestine.^[103] The conference began on 7 February 1939 and ended on 17 March 1939, at St. James's Palace in London. In light of the Woodhead Commission's report, both the Arabs and the British government rejected the partition plan as impractical. The British government issued a policy statement rejecting partition as impracticable due to "political, administrative, and financial difficulties."^[104] The conference was also unable to resolve the issue of Jewish immigration to Palestine, which had become more common following Nazi Germany's annexation of all of Czechoslovakia.^[105][106]

Faisal was a global advocate for Palestinian rights, as evidenced by one of his speeches to the United Nations in 1963, in which he claimed that the Palestinian crisis is the only thing that has ruined Arab peace since the UN resolution to partition Palestine. One of his policies on this issue was to refuse to recognize Israel, to unite Arab efforts while leaving differences aside, to donate money and fight, to establish a body representing Palestinians, and to involve Muslims in the defense of the cause.^[107]

Faisal sits at his table at a meeting at the United Nations during his tenure as Minister of Foreign Affairs

In his speech on 22 September 1947 to the United Nations, Faisal said:

But today the Arabs wish to repel the aggression of a political minority group, namely, the Zionists. It is a group which does not represent world Jewry. It is a group which is more political than religious, a group whose ways and methods are not different from those of the Nazis.^[107]

North Yemen Civil War

With Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser in a meeting at Qubbah Palace in Cairo, 18 December 1969

The North Yemen Civil War raged between loyalists of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen and those of the Yemen Arab Republic from 1962 to 1970. The Yemeni republic was created after revolutionary republicans headed by the army under Abdullah al-Sallal staged a coup against Imam Muhammad al-Badr. As a result, the Imam fled to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, where he rallied backing from northern Shia tribes to reclaim control, sparking a full-fledged civil war. Saudi Arabia backed al-Badr and his royalist followers, while Egypt under the United Arab Republic backed the Yemeni republicans. As a result, Saudi and Egyptian relations were strained.^[109]

In September 1964, Nasser and Faisal met in Alexandria, Egypt, at the Arab summit. At the time, Egypt had 40,000 troops in Yemen, with 10,000 civilians killed. The two leaders committed in their formal declaration to completely cooperate in resolving current disagreements between Yemen's diverse factions, collaborate in preventing armed clashes in Yemen, and to reach a peaceful conclusion. The declaration was widely praised in the Arab world, and Washington praised it as a "statesmanlike action" and a "major step toward eventual peaceful resolution of the long civil war." At Alexandria's airport, Nasser and Faisal exchanged heartfelt embraces and referred to each other as "brother." Faisal said he was leaving Egypt "with my heart brimming with love for President Nasser."^[110]

Gamal Abdel Nasser traveled to Jeddah on the Freedom ship in August 1965, marking his first visit to Saudi Arabia since 1954, when he came to perform Hajj. Faisal greeted Nasser warmly when he arrived.^[111] Despite their differences, the two countries' relations were restored. Both men came to an agreement on the following (known as the Jeddah Agreement) within 48 hours:

• The gradual withdrawal of Egyptian forces from Yemen within ten months^[111]
• The cessation of all Saudi aid to the royalists^[111]
• The formation of a Yemeni council of 50 members representing all Yemeni factions and charged with forming a transitional government in preparation for a general referendum to determine the future of Yemen^[111]

Sami Sharaf, an Egyptian official, recognized that implementing the agreement would be difficult because it had been rejected by all Yemeni parties. Republican chairman Abdullah al-Sallal stated, "The agreement is a blatant interference in the independence of the Yemen Arab Republic, and a blatant attack on its sovereignty for all International laws." The royalists, on the other hand, backed the agreement at first before rejecting any attempt to terminate the war with the republicans.^[111]

The Haradh conference was conducted on November 23, 1965, under the auspices of Egypt and Saudi Arabia, to put the Saudi-Egyptian declaration between the two parties of the Yemeni conflict into effect.^[112] Judge Abd al-Rahman al-Iryani led the republican delegation, while Ahmed Muhammad al-Shami, the royalists' foreign minister, led the royal delegation. The conflicting parties, however, were unable to strike a compromise, which resulted in further bloodshed between republicans and royalists.^[113]

Egypt indicated its willingness to stop the war in Yemen as part of the Khartoum Resolution of August 1967. Egyptian Foreign Minister Mahmoud Riad suggested that Egypt and Saudi Arabia renew their 1965 Jeddah Agreement. Faisal was pleased with Nasser's offer, and Imam al-Badr pledged to deploy his troops to fight alongside Egypt against Israel if Nasser kept his word.^[114] Nasser and Faisal signed a deal in which Nasser agreed to withdraw his 20,000 troops from Yemen, Faisal agreed to stop delivering weapons to al-Badr, and three neutral Arab states agreed to send in observers. Al-Sallal felt that Nasser had betrayed him.^[115] Nasser unfroze approximately $100 million in Saudi assets in Egypt, and Faisal denationalized two Egyptian-owned banks he had taken over earlier that year.^[116] Saudi Arabia, Libya, and Kuwait agreed to give Egypt a $266 million annual subsidy, with Saudi Arabia contributing $154 million.^[117]

Six-Day War

Some of the attending heads of state at the Arab League Summit in Khartoum following the Six-Day War. From left to right: Faisal, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Abdullah al-Sallal of Yemen, Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah of Kuwait and Abd al-Rahman Arif of Iraq, 2 September 1967

During the Six-Day War, Faisal ordered the Saudi Arabian Armed Forces to be on alert, canceling all vacations and mobilizing forces in the Kingdom's north. Following that, orders were issued for a force of 20,000 Saudi soldiers to travel to Jordan to participate alongside the Arab forces. After the war, he directed that a Saudi force be stationed inside Jordanian territory to provide support and assistance as needed for ten years.^{[118][119][120]}

Furthermore, at the Khartoum Conference, Saudi Arabia, Libya, and Kuwait agreed to establish a fund worth $378 million to be distributed among countries affected by the June 1967 War. Saudi Arabia would contribute $140 million.^[121] However, Faisal did not attend himself and did not send a representative to the Arab League summits until 1969 to keep away from the requests of the Arab countries involved in the war concerning the increase of Saudi Arabia's financial aid.^[122]

Faisal's grandson, Prince Amr bin Mohammed Al Faisal, said "I am told by my relatives, my other relatives, after 1967 and the fall of Jerusalem to the Israelis, that was a turning point in his life. He never smiled again, according to them. I didn't see him smile much, and he became very quiet and contemplative, and mostly he would spend his time listening rather than speaking himself."^[123]

Ramadan War

After taking office in 1970, Egyptian president Anwar Sadat formed a strong diplomatic relationship with Faisal.

After President Nasser of Egypt died in 1970, Faisal drew closer to Nasser's successor, Anwar Sadat, who himself was planning a break with the Soviet Union and a move towards the pro-American camp. After Sadat launched the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, Faisal withdrew Saudi oil from world markets and was the primary force behind the 1973 oil crisis, in protest over Western support for Israel during the conflict. The embargo was initially imposed on Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States, but it was later extended to Portugal, Rhodesia, and South Africa.^[124] The price of oil had risen about 300 percent by the conclusion of the embargo in March 1974,^[125] from US$3 per barrel ($19/m³) to nearly $12 per barrel ($75/m³) globally; US prices were much higher. The embargo triggered an oil crisis, or "shock", with numerous short- and long-term implications for world politics and the economy. This was regarded as the defining act of Faisal's career, and gained him lasting prestige among many Arabs and Muslims worldwide.

Saluting Saudi military personnel, 1974

In 1974 Faisal was named Time magazine's Man of the Year, and the financial windfall generated by the crisis fueled the economic boom that occurred in Saudi Arabia after his death. The new oil revenue also allowed Faisal to greatly increase the aid and subsidies begun following the 1967 Six-Day War^[126] to Egypt, Syria, and the Palestine Liberation Organization.^[127]

It is a commonly-held belief in Saudi Arabia, and the wider Arab world, that Faisal's oil embargo was the real cause of his assassination, via a Western conspiracy.^[128][129]

Personality and appearance

Faisal was known for his integrity, extreme humility, kindness, and tact with everyone. As a result, he was ascetic, avoiding displays of extravagance and luxury. He had many hobbies, some of which were falconry, hunting, literature, reading, and poetry. He was also a big admirer of the yearly Najdi festivals and celebrations.^[160] Faisal chose to work long hours and set aside some of his interests after assuming power and becoming preoccupied with state affairs.^[161]

After coming to power in 1964, Faisal quickly caught the attention of the international public. The New York Times stated that Faisal looked like "someone out of a poem by Rudyard Kipling or a casting office in Hollywood."^[159] He was around six feet tall, above average height,^[159] but not quite as tall as his father Abdulaziz and his brother Saud.^[162][163] Compared to other Muslim rulers such as Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran, who almost exclusively wore European-styled outfits, Faisal was known to have dressed modestly, as he was most often seen wearing a traditional Saudi thawb, even in the presence of foreign dignitaries.^[159]