East Asia–United States relations covers American relations with the region as a whole, as well as summaries of relations with China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and smaller places. It includes diplomatic, military, economic, social and cultural ties. The emphasis is on historical developments.

Main countries

Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 People's Republic of China1844 (Qing)[1]
1979 (PRC)		See China–United States relations and China–United States trade war

American relations with the People's Republic of China cycled from very hostile (1949-1970), friendly with growing trade (1970-2015), and hostile again (2016–present). A great amount of trade between the two countries necessitates positive political relations, although occasional disagreements over tariffs, currency exchange rates and the Political status of Taiwan do occur. The U.S. criticizes China on human rights issues and in recent years like the mass detaining of Uyghurs and Kazakhs in Xinjiang or the cultural assimilation of Mongols and Tibetans. China has criticized the United States on human rights in return also. The United States acknowledges the People's Republic's One-China policy.

The relations deteriorated sharply under Donald Trump, who launched a trade war against China, banned US companies from selling equipment to Huawei, increased visa restrictions on Chinese students and scholars and designated China as a "currency manipulator".[2][3][4][5]

 Republic of China1844 (Qing)[1]
1911 (ended 1979)
1979 (Taiwan Relations Act - unofficial)		See Taiwan–United States relations

The U.S. recognized the Nationalist Government as the legitimate government of all of China throughout the Chinese Civil War. The U.S. continued to recognize the Republic of China until 1979, when it shifted its recognition to the People's Republic of China in accordance with the One China policy. The U.S. continued to provide Taiwan with military aid after 1979, and continued informal relations through the American Institute in Taiwan, and is considered to be a strong Asian ally and supporter of the United States.[6]

 Hong Kong
 Macau		1992[7]
1999[8]		See Hong Kong–United States relations and Macau–United States relations
See United States–Hong Kong Policy Act and United States–Macau Policy Act
 Japan1854, 1952[9]
See Japan–United States relations

The relationship began in the 1850s as the U.S. was a major factor in forcing Japan to resume contacts with the outer world beyond a very restricted role. In the late 19th century the Japanese sent many delegations to Europe, and some to the U.S., to discover and copy the latest technology and thereby modernize Japan very rapidly and allow it to build its own empire. There was some friction over control of Hawaii and the Philippines, but Japan stood aside as the U.S. annexed those lands in 1898. Likewise the U.S. did not object when Japan took control of Korea. The two nations cooperated with the European powers in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900, but the U.S. was increasingly troubled about Japan's denial of the Open Door Policy that would ensure that all nations could do business with China on an equal basis.[10]

President Theodore Roosevelt admired Japan's strength as it defeated a major European power, Russia. He brokered an end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1905–6. Anti-Japanese sentiment (especially on the West Coast) soured relations in the 1907–24 era. In the 1930s the U.S. protested vehemently against Japan's seizure of Manchuria (1931), its war against China (1937–45), and its seizure of Indochina (Vietnam) 1940–41. American sympathies were with China and Japan rejected increasingly angry American demands that Japan pull out of China. The two nations fought an all-out war 1941–45; the U.S. won a total victory, with heavy bombing (including two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki) that devastated Japan's 50 largest industrial cities. The American army under Douglas MacArthur occupied and ruled Japan, 1945–51, with the successful goal of sponsoring a peaceful, prosperous and democratic nation.[11]

In 1951, the U.S. and Japan signed Treaty of San Francisco and Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan, subsequently revised as Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan in 1960, relations since then have been excellent. The United States considers Japan to be one of its closest allies, and it is both a Major Non-NATO ally and NATO contact country. The United States has several military bases in Japan including Yokosuka, which harbors the U.S. 7th Fleet. The JSDF, or Japanese Self Defense Force, cross train with the U.S. Military, often providing auxiliary security and conducting war games.

 Mongolia1987[12]See Mongolia–United States relations
 North KoreaOnly Informal Relations[13]See North Korea–United States relations
The United States and North Korea do not have diplomatic relations.[14]
 South Korea1882 (Joseon);[15] 1949 (Republic)[16]See South Korea–United States relations

South Korea–United States relations have been most extensive since 1945, when the United States helped establish capitalism in South Korea and led the UN-sponsored Korean War against North Korea and China (1950–53).[17] South Korea's rapid economic growth, democratization and modernization greatly reduced its U.S. dependency. Large numbers of U.S. forces remain in Korea. On September 24, 2018, President Donald Trump signed the United States-South Korea Trade Deal with South Korean President Moon Jae-in.[18]

History

Japan

The relationship between the United States and Japan was minimal before 1853 due to Japan's self-imposed isolation from the world, which lasted over two centuries. The Japanese government issued the "Sakoku" policy in 1633, prohibiting foreigners from entering Japan and Japanese from leaving the country under penalty of death. In the 1850s, the US and other Western countries started to demand more access to Japan for trade and diplomacy. This led to Commodore Matthew C. Perry's arrival with his "Black Ships" in 1853. Japan complied with the Bakumatsu. It opened its ports to foreign vessels and signed treaties with the West, such as the Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States–Japan), called the Harris Treaty of 1858.[19]

Revolutionary changes inside Japan during the Meiji Restoration that began in 1868 led to very rapid modernization, industrialization and eagerness to learn from and trade with the U.S. and Europe. Trade expanded rapidly. The US played an essential role in this transformation, providing technology, higher education, and political guidance. The U.S. also sent missionaries, but they made few converts.[20]

Better travel opportunities

The opportunities for fast steamship travel from San Francisco improve dramatically in the second half of the 19th century. The first regular steamship route carried passengers, freight and mail to Yokohama in 1867. The transcontinental railroad opened in 1869 and service was expanded to China and the South Pacific. The US Post Office subsidized it to carry the mail. Only one line of steamers connected the U.S. to Japan in 1885, but by 1898 there were six. The trip to Yokohama took 22 days in 1886, and only 12 days in 1898, In the rates for passenger and freight continued to fall.[21]

Southeast Asia

Early American entry into what was then called the East Indies was low key. In 1795, a secret voyage for pepper set sail from Salem, Massachusetts on an 18-month voyage that returned with a bulk cargo of pepper, the first to be so imported into the country, which sold at a profit of seven hundred per cent.[22] In 1831, the merchantman Friendship of Salem returned to report the ship had been plundered, and the first officer and two crewmen murdered in Sumatra. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 obligated the Dutch to ensure the safety of shipping and overland trade in and around Aceh, and they accordingly sent the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army on the punitive expedition of 1831. President Andrew Jackson also ordered America's first Sumatran punitive expedition of 1832, which was followed by a second punitive expedition in 1838. The Friendship incident thus afforded the Dutch a reason to take over Aceh; and Jackson, to dispatch diplomatist Edmund Roberts,[23] who in 1833 secured the Roberts Treaty with Siam. In 1856, negotiations for amendment of this treaty, Townsend Harris stated the position of the United States:

The United States does not hold any possessions in the East, nor does it desire any. The form of government forbids the holding of colonies. The United States therefore cannot be an object of jealousy to any Eastern Power. Peaceful commercial relations, which give as well as receive benefits, is what the President wishes to establish with Siam, and such is the object of my mission.[24]

China

Opium trade

British merchants, protected by the Royal Navy, dominated the opium trade in China. The opium was grown in India – then under British control – and sold by British merchants to Chinese wholesalers in China. The Chinese government protested, two wars resulted, with decisive victories by the British. The Americans did only 1/10 as much opium business in China, but showed more ingenuity in developing sources, and building a network of Chinese merchants.[25] The British had a monopoly on the Indian supply, but the Americans relied more on Turkey, and circumvented Chinese restrictions by smuggling to local merchants in the Portuguese colony of Macau while the Chinese government was focused exclusively on the British in Canton. In effect the British Navy protected the American interests, and American merchants received protection from the unequal treaties that China was forced to sign with the British.[26] American merchant Peter Snow was based in Canton, but his business was not highly profitable. On the other hand, he served as the U.S. consul there in the late 1830s and early 1840s. He proved efficient and effective in protecting American business interests during the opium crisis of 1839–40.[27] The Chinese government saw him the Americans as a counterweight to the British. The Americans opportunistically took advantage of British victories and gain the same privileges without using or threatening to use its military. The emerging American policy was equal opportunity for all nations, which by 1900 became the "open door" policy.[28] The main American activity in China saw merchants unloaded their opium in Portuguese Macau, and purchase tea, silk and China in Canton. Most of the Americans were based in Salem Massachusetts, and after 1840 they suddenly gave up the international trade, and invested their profits in new textile factories in New England. There were practically no opportunities to invest in China itself, so the American presence dropped off sharply. All the remained was a nostalgic image of a friendly China that probably encouraged missionary activities in the late 1840s.[29]

Extraterritorial rights

Under the 1844 Treaty of Wanghia, negotiated by U.S. minister Caleb Cushing, American businessmen were restricted to the designated international districts in designated port cities. They were exempt from Chinese courts and were instead under the legal jurisdiction of American officials. These extraterritorial rights lasted until 1943. The treaty represented an American challenge to British dominance. China mades similar treaties with Japan and the Western powers in order to block a British takeover of the Chinese market.[30] American missionaries were allowed anywhere.[31][32]

Missionaries in China

British Protestant churches took the lead in establishing a missionary role in China, especially with the China Inland Mission. The American program was smaller, but it had a certain impact on China, and even more so on the United States.[33]

Local government officials, all steeped in Confucianism, took a hostile view of Christianity, so converts were few and from the social fringe. Much more important was the impact on medicine and education. Peter Parker (1804–1888) in Canton (Guangzhou) was the most influential American missionary doctor.[34][35] John Kerr (1824-1901) in 1859 established the Boji Hospital in Canton as one of the most influential hospitals in China. He established a medical school and prepared textbooks and journal articles to introduce Western medicine in depth. By 1937, British and American missionaries operated 300 church hospitals, with 21,000 beds, as well as 600 small clinics.[36][37] The American missionary community could boast of hundreds of primary and secondary schools, topped off by 13 Protestant and three Catholic universities. The capstones were Yenching University and Peking Union Medical College.[38]

American missionaries had an audience at home who listen closely to their first-hand accounts. Around 1900 there were on average about 300 China missionaries on furlough back home, and they presented their case to church groups perhaps 30,000 times a year, reaching several million churchgoers. They were suffused with optimism that sooner or later China would be converted to Christianity. By the 1920s, however, the mainline Protestant churches realize that conversions were not happening, despite all the schools and hospitals. Furthermore, they had come to appreciate the ethical and cultural values of a different civilization, and began to doubt their own superiority. The mainline Protestant denomination missionary work declined rapidly.[39][40] In their place came a growing role for Chinese Christians. Furthermore, there was an influx of fundamentalist, Pentecostal and Jehovah Witness missionaries who remained committed to the conversion process.[41]

Novelist Pearl S. Buck (1892–1973) was raised in a bilingual environment in China by her missionary parents. China was the setting for many of her best-selling novels and stories, which explored the hardships, and the depth of humanity of the people she loved, and considered fully equal. After college in the United States, she returned to China as a Presbyterian missionary 1914 to 1932. She taught English at the college level. The Good Earth (1931) was her best-selling novel, and a popular movie. Along with numerous other books and articles she reached a large middle-class American audience with a highly sympathetic view of China.[42] The Nobel Prize committee for literature hailed her, "for the notable works which pave the way to a human sympathy passing over widely separated racial boundaries and for the studies of human ideals which are a great and living art of portraiture."[43]

No one had more influence on American political thinking about foreign policy than Henry R. Luce (1898-1967), founder and publisher of Time, Life and Fortune magazines from the 1920s to his death. He was born to missionary parents in China, and educated there until age 15. His Chinese experience made a deep impression, and his publications always gave large scale favorable attention to China. He gave some very strong support to Chiang Kai-shek in his battles against Mao Zedong.[44][45]

The politically most influential returning missionary was Walter Judd (1898-1994) Who served 10 years is a medical missionary in Fujian 1925-1931 and 1934–1938.[46] On his return to Minnesota, he became an articulate spokesman denouncing the Japanese aggression against China, explaining it in terms of Japan's scarcity of raw materials and markets, population pressure, and the disorder and civil war in China. According to biographer Yanli Gao:

Judd was both a Wilsonian moralist and a Jacksonian protectionist, whose efforts were driven by a general Christian understanding of human beings, as well as a missionary complex. As he appealed simultaneously to American national interests and a popular Christian moral conscience, the Judd experience demonstrated that determined courageous advocacy by missionaries did in fact help to shape an American foreign policy needing to be awakened from its isolationist slumbers."[47] Judd served two decades in Congress 1943-1962 as a Republican, where he was a highly influential spokesman on Asian affairs generally and especially China. He was a liberal missionary and a but a conservative anti-Communist congressman who defined the extent of American support for the Chiang Kai-shek regime.[48]

1905 Chinese boycott

In response to severe restrictions on Chinese immigration to the United States, the overseas Chinese living in the United States organized a boycott whereby people in China refuse to purchase American products. The project was organized by a reform organization based in the United States, Baohuang Hui. Unlike the reactionary Boxers, these reformers were modernizers. The Manchu government had supported the Boxers, but these reformers—of whom Sun Yat-sen was representative, opposed the government. The boycott was put into effect by merchants and students in south and central China. It made only a small economic impact, because China bought few American products apart from Standard Oil's kerosene. Washington was outraged and treated the boycott as a Boxer-like violent attack, and demanded the Peking government stop it or else. President Theodore Roosevelt asked Congress for special funding for a naval expedition. Washington refused to consider softening the exclusion laws because it responded to deep-seated anti-Chinese prejudices that were widespread especially on the West Coast. It now began to denounce Chinese nationalism.[49] The impact on the Chinese people, in China and abroad, was far-reaching. Jane Larson argues the boycott, "marked the beginning of mass politics and modern nationalism in China. Never before had shared nationalistic aspirations mobilized Chinese across the world in political action, joining the cause of Chinese migrants with the fate of the Chinese nation."[50][51][52]

Students and art collectors

During the late 19th-century, Qing China and Imperial Japan sent thousands of students to study in the United States. As part of the Self-Strengthening Movement, the Qing government sent 120 students to New England to live and study for a decade, 1872–1882.[53][54] However, far more students attended the missionary schools, which had a greater impact on their thinking. Furthermore, for every hundred Chinese students in the United States there were a thousand in Japan, which was closer, cheaper, and the language overlapped Chinese. Chinese students comprised a critical mass, organized themselves and were increasingly committed to a revolution in China. Sun Yat-sen actively recruited them, but Chinese diplomats in Japan tried to support the more conservative students and suppress the revolutionary impulses.[55][56][57]

Wealthy Americans first took notice of Chinese art in the late 18th century, and Japanese art a century later. Wealthy merchants used trading voyages to purchase items, and by the 1850s numerous collectors were active.[58][59][60]

Dollar diplomacy fails in China

Dollar diplomacy was the policy of the Taft administration (1909–1913). The goal was to minimize the use or threat of military force and instead use American economic power to create a tangible American interest in China that would limit the scope of the other powers, increase the opportunity for American trade and investment, and help maintain the Open Door of trading opportunities of all nations. In his Annual Message to Congress on December 3, 1912, Taft summarized the basic idea:

The diplomacy of the present administration has sought to respond to modern ideas of commercial intercourse. This policy has been characterized as substituting dollars for bullets. It is one that appeals alike to idealistic humanitarian sentiments, to the dictates of sound policy and strategy, and to legitimate commercial aims.[61]

Whereas Theodore Roosevelt wanted to conciliate Japan and help it neutralize Russia, Taft and his Secretary of State Philander Knox ignored Roosevelt's policy and his advice.

Dollar diplomacy was based on the false assumption that American financial interests could mobilize their potential power, and wanted to do so in East Asia. However the American financial system was not geared to handle international finance, such as loans and large investments, and had to depend primarily on London. The British also wanted an open door in China, but were not prepared to support American financial maneuvers. Finally, the other powers held territorial interests, including naval bases and designated geographical areas which they dominated inside China, while the United States refused anything of the kind. Bankers were reluctant, but Taft and Knox kept pushing them to invest. Most efforts were failures, until finally the United States forced its way into the Hukuang international railway loan. The loan was finally made by the so-called China Consortium in 1911, and helped spark a widespread "Railway Protection Movement" revolt against foreign investment that overthrew the Chinese government. The bonds caused no end of disappointment and trouble. As late as 1983, over 300 American investors tried, unsuccessfully, to force the government of China to redeem the worthless Hukuang bonds.[62] When Woodrow Wilson became president in March 1913, he immediately canceled all support for Dollar diplomacy. Historians agree that Taft's Dollar diplomacy was a failure everywhere, In the Far East it alienated Japan and Russia, and created a deep suspicion among the other powers hostile to American motives.[63][64]

Immigration

East Asian immigration to the United States came in three phases. From 1850 to 1880 about 165,000 Chinese arrived, brought in to build railroads; most returned to China, and because few Chinese women arrived, the numbers of Chinese-Americans shrank. hostility was strong, and were met with numerous violent attacks. As a result, most Chinese-Americans moved to ghettos called Chinatowns in larger cities.[65] the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 drastically reduced immigration of unskilled laborers, but students and businessmen were allowed

Large numbers of Japanese farmers went to Hawaii in the 1890s before it became part of the United States. In 1900–10, Japanese farm workers arrived in California and the West Coast. Public opinion in the West was quite hostile to the Chinese and Japanese, and numerous laws were passed that tried to stop or slow the inflow. After 1965 racial quotas were ended, and large numbers of Asians began arriving.

Restrictions

The main legal restriction was the Chinese Exclusion Act, which largely prohibited the immigration of unskilled Chinese from 1882 to 1943. What did occur was largely illegal, especially claiming falsely to have been born in the United States. About 80 to 90 percent were men who left their wives and families behind in China and never saw them again, but they did send remittances.[66][67][68]

Japan was too powerful and prideful a nation after defeated Russia in 1905 to tolerate legal restrictions. However president Theodore Roosevelt did make the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 such that the Japanese would not allow unskilled immigration to the United States.[69][70] In the 1924 law immigration from Asia was almost completely stopped, except for allowing people who had been born in the United States.[71]

Postwar immigration

World War II-era legislation and judicial rulings gradually increased the ability of Asian Americans to immigrate and become naturalized citizens. By 1960 there were 200,000 Filipino Americans; they numbered 2 million by 2000.[72] The Communist takeovers in East Asia led to waves of refugees from conflicts occurring in Southeast Asia such as the Vietnam War. Korean Americans came as war brides and orphans and many other roles, totaling about 800,000 by 1990.[73] Asian American immigrants have a significant percentage of well-educated individuals who have already achieved professional status, a first among immigration groups.[74]

The most important factor was the Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965 which ended the main restrictions and quotas on Asians. The total grew by a multiple of 26 from 491,000 in 1960 to 12.8 million in 2014.[75] Asian Americans were the fastest-growing racial group between 2000 and 2010.[76] By 2012, more immigrants came from Asia than from Latin America.[77] In 2015, Pew Research Center found that from 2010 to 2015 more immigrants came from Asia than from Latin America, and that since 1965 Asians have made up a quarter of all immigrants.[78][79]

Asians have made up an increasing proportion of the foreign-born Americans: "In 1960, Asians represented 5 percent of the U.S. foreign-born population; by 2014, their share grew to 30 percent of the nation's 42.4 million immigrants."[75] As of 2016, "Asia is the second-largest region of birth (after Latin America) of U.S. immigrants."[75] In 2013, China surpassed Mexico as the top single country of origin for immigrants to the U.S.[80] Asian immigrants "are more likely than the overall foreign-born population to be naturalized citizens"; in 2014, 59% of Asian immigrants had U.S. citizenship, compared to 47% of all immigrants.[75] Postwar Asian immigration to the U.S. has been diverse: in 2014, 31% of Asian immigrants to the U.S. were from East Asia (predominately China and Korea); 27.7% were from South Asia (predominately India); 32.6% were from Southeastern Asia (predominately the Philippines and Vietnam) and 8.3% were from Western Asia.[75]

Increasing amounts Asian American students demanded university-level research and teaching into Asian history and the interaction with the United States.[81] The Asian-American community supported multiculturalism but opposed affirmative action that amounted to an Asian quota on their admission.[82][83][84]

Cultural transmission

Cuisine

East Asian immigrants to the United States brought along their distinctive culinary traditions.[85][86] Chinese and Japanese cuisines, for example, have become widely popular across the United States. There are also several different regional Chinese culinary traditions that have become popular, such as Szechwan, Hunan, Fukien, and Yunnan. The preparation and presentation of rice, fish, and fresh produce prioritized in the typical Chinese dietary habit is emphasized.[87] In return American fast food restaurants have become popular across East Asia. The famed American hamburger chain McDonald's opened its first outlet in Japan in 1971, Hong Kong in 1975, Taiwan in 1984, South Korea in 1988, and China in 1990. Typically, American fast food corporations operating in East Asia own at least 50 percent of each franchise while the local entrepreneurs and investors control the remainder.[88]

See also

U.S.

China

Notes

  1. 1 2 "China - Countries - Office of the Historian". Retrieved February 19, 2015.
  2. ↑ Meredith, Sam (August 6, 2019). "China responds to US after Treasury designates Beijing a 'currency manipulator'". CNBC. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  3. ↑ "China-US trade war: Sino-American ties being torn down brick by brick". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on September 4, 2019. Retrieved August 18, 2019.
  4. ↑ "For the U.S. and China, it's not a trade war anymore — it's something worse". Los Angeles Times. May 31, 2019. Retrieved August 18, 2019.
  5. ↑ "NDR 2019: Singapore will be 'principled' in approach to China-US trade dispute; ready to help workers". CNA. Archived from the original on May 15, 2021. Retrieved August 18, 2019.
  6. ↑ Nancy Bernkopf Tucker, ed., Dangerous Strait: The U.S.-Taiwan-China Crisis (2005)
  7. ↑ "U.S. Relations With Hong Kong". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved June 26, 2017.
  8. ↑ "U.S. Relations With Macau". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved June 26, 2017.
  9. ↑ "Japan - Countries - Office of the Historian". Retrieved February 19, 2015.
  10. ↑ Foster Rhea Dulles, Yankees and Samurai: America's Role in the Emergence of Modern Japan, 1791–1900 (1965)
  11. ↑ Walter LaFeber, The Clash: A History of US–Japan Relations (W.W. Norton, 1997)
  12. ↑ "Mongolia - Countries - Office of the Historian". Retrieved February 19, 2015.
  13. ↑ 2018 North Korea–United States summit
  14. ↑ "North Korea". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved November 28, 2016.
  15. ↑ "Korea - Countries - Office of the Historian". Retrieved February 19, 2015.
  16. ↑ "Republic of Korea (South Korea) - Countries - Office of the Historian". Retrieved February 19, 2015.
  17. ↑ Jae Ho Chung, Between Ally and Partner: Korea-China Relations and the United States (2008) excerpt and text search
  18. ↑ "Trump and South Korean President Moon Jae-in sign trade deal | CNN Politics". CNN. September 24, 2018.
  19. ↑ Charles E. Neu, The Troubled Encounter: The United States and Japan (1975) pp. 1–14. online
  20. ↑ Neu, The Troubled Encounter pp. 15–27.
  21. ↑ Ian Tyrrell, "Looking Eastward: Pacific and Global Perspectives on American History in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries", Japanese Journal of American Studies, No. 18 (2007) pp 41-57.
  22. ↑ Trow, Charles Edward (1905). "Introduction". The old shipmasters of Salem. New York and London: G.P. Putnam's Sons. pp. xx–xxiii. OCLC 4669778.
  23. ↑ Roberts, Edmund (Digitized October 12, 2007) (1837). "Introduction". Embassy to the Eastern Courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat: In the U.S. Sloop-of-War Peacock During the Years 1832–34. Harper & Brothers. ISBN 9780608404066. OCLC 12212199. Retrieved February 16, 2014.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  24. ↑ "1b. Harris Treaty of 1856". Royal Gifts from Thailand. National Museum of Natural History. March 14, 2013 [speech delivered 1856]. Archived from the original (exhibition) on December 22, 2015. Retrieved February 9, 2014. Credits {{cite web}}: External link in |quote= (help)
  25. ↑ Tyler Dennett, Americans in eastern Asia (1922) pp 115-27.
  26. ↑ Jacques M. Downs, "American merchants and the China opium trade, 1800–1840". Business History Review 42.4 (1968): 418-442. Online
  27. ↑ Jacques M. Downs, "Bad Luck in the China trade: Peter Wanton Snow", Rhode Island History (1966) 25#3 pp 73-80.
  28. ↑ Arnold H. Taylor, "Opium and the Open Door", South Atlantic Quarterly (1970) 69#1 pp 79-95.
  29. ↑ Ernest R. May and James C, Thomson, eds. American-East Asian Relations: A Survey (1972) pp 26-31.
  30. ↑ Macabe Keliher, "Anglo-American rivalry and the origins of US China policy". Diplomatic History 31.2 (2007): 227-257. online
  31. ↑ Dennett, Americans in Eastern Asia (1922) pp 145-73.
  32. ↑ Teemu Ruskola, "Canton is not Boston: the invention of American imperial sovereignty". American Quarterly 57.3 (2005): 859-884. online
  33. ↑ Patricia Neils, United States Attitudes Toward China: Impact of American Missionaries (1990).
  34. ↑ Louis Fu, "Healing bodies or saving souls? Reverend Dr Peter Parker (1804–1888) as medical missionary". Journal of Medical Biography 24.2 (2016): 266-275.
  35. ↑ Edward V. Gulick, Peter Parker and the Opening of China (1974)
  36. ↑ Ya Tu; Tingyu Fang (2015). History and Philosophy of Chinese Medicine. PMPH-USA. p. 216. ISBN 9787117197847., published by the Chinese government.
  37. ↑ Louis Fu, "Medical missionaries in China: John Glasgow Kerr (1824–1901) and cutting for the stone". Journal of Medical Biography 26.3 (2018): 194-202.
  38. ↑ Warren I. Cohen, ed., Pacific Passage p 149
  39. ↑ John King Fairbank, China Watch (1987) pp 21-23.
  40. ↑ David A. Hollinger, Protestants abroad: how missionaries tried to change the world but changed America (2017) pp 59-93.
  41. ↑ Joel Carpenter, and Wilbert R. Shenk, eds. Earthen vessels: American evangelicals and foreign missions, 1880-1980 (2012) pp xiii-xiv.
  42. ↑ Michael H. Hunt, "Pearl Buck-Popular Expert on China, 1931-1949". Modern China 3.1 (1977): 33-64. online
  43. ↑ Mark P. Hutchinson, ed. (2018). The Oxford History of Protestant Dissenting Traditions, Volume V: The Twentieth Century: Themes and Variations in a Global Context. Oxford UP. p. 427. ISBN 9780192518224.
  44. ↑ Michael H. Hunt, "East Asia in Henry Luce's 'American Century'". Diplomatic History 23.2 (1999): 321-353. Online
  45. ↑ Robert E. Herzstein, Henry R. Luce, Time, and the American crusade in Asia (Cambridge UP, 2005). pp 1-4, 247-49.
  46. ↑ Lee Edwards, Missionary for Freedom: The Life and Times of Walter Judd (1990).
  47. ↑ Yanli Gao and Robert Osburn Jr. "Walter Judd and the Sino-Japanese War: Christian Missionary cum Foreign Policy Activist". Journal of Church and State 58.4 (2016): 615-632.
  48. ↑ Yanli Gao, "Judd's China: a missionary congressman and US–China policy". Journal of Modern Chinese History 2.2 (2008): 197-219.
  49. ↑ Howard K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (1955) pp 212–252
  50. ↑ Jane Leung Larson, "The 1905 anti-American boycott as a transnational Chinese movement". Chinese America: History and Perspectives (2007): 191-98, Quoting page 191, Excerpt
  51. ↑ Guanhua Wang, In Search of Justice: The 1905-1906 Chinese Anti-American Boycott (Harvard East Asian Monographs, 2002).
  52. ↑ Sin-Kiong Wong, "Die for the boycott and nation: Martyrdom and the 1905 anti-American movement in China". Modern Asian Studies 35.3 (2001): 565-588.
  53. ↑ Edward J. M. Rhoads, Stepping forth into the world: the Chinese educational mission to the United States, 1872-81 (Hong Kong UP, 2011) online Archived September 27, 2019, at the Wayback Machine.
  54. ↑ Stacey Bieler, "Patriots" or "traitors"?: A History of American-educated Chinese Students (ME Sharpe, 2004).
  55. ↑ Marius B. Jansen, Japan and China: From War to Peace, 1894-1972 (1975) pp 149-75.
  56. ↑ John King Fairbank, The United States and China (4th ed. 1976) pp 211-216.
  57. ↑ Daniel H. Bays, "Chinese Government Policies towards the Revolutionary Students in Japan after 1900: Reassessment and Implications". Journal of Asian History 7.2 (1973): 153-177. online.
  58. ↑ Warren I. Cohen, "Art Collecting as International Relations: Chinese Art and American Culture". Journal of American-East Asian Relations (1992): 409-434. online
  59. ↑ Warren I. Cohen, East Asian Art and American Culture (1992)
  60. ↑ Karl E. Meyer, and Shareen Blair Brysac, The China Collectors: America's Century-Long Hunt for Asian Art Treasures (2015)(Auth
  61. ↑ Carl Cavanagh Hodge; Cathal J. Nolan (2007). U.S. Presidents and Foreign Policy: From 1789 to the Present. ABC-CLIO. p. 203. ISBN 9781851097906.
  62. ↑ Mary Thornton, "U.S. Backs China's Move to Reopen 1911 Railroad Bond Case" Washington Post August 19, 1983.
  63. ↑ Walter Vinton Scholes and Marie V.Scholes, The Foreign Policies of the Taft Administration (1970) pp 247-248.
  64. ↑ John Martin Carroll; George C. Herring (1996). Modern American Diplomacy. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 18–19. ISBN 9780842025553.
  65. ↑ Stuart Creighton Miller, The unwelcome immigrant: The American image of the Chinese, 1785-1882 (U of California Press, 1969).
  66. ↑ Erika Lee, At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Exclusion Era, 1882-1943 (U of North Carolina Press, 2003) pp. 114, 189. online
  67. ↑ Erika Lee, "The 'Yellow Peril' and Asian Exclusion in the Americas" Pacific Historical Review 76#4 (2007), pp. 537-562 online
  68. ↑ Roger Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door: American Immigration Policy and Immigrants Since 1882 (2005).
  69. ↑ Xiaojian Zhao; Edward J.W. Park (2013). Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History. ABC-CLIO. pp. 622–623. ISBN 9781598842401.
  70. ↑ Izumi Hirobe, Japanese Pride, American Prejudice: Modifying the Exclusion Clause of the 1924 Immigration Act (2001).
  71. ↑ Mae M. Ngai, "The architecture of race in American immigration law: A reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924". The Journal of American History 86.1 (1999): 67-92. online
  72. ↑ Barbara Mercedes Posadas (1999). The Filipino Americans. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. xiii. ISBN 9780313297427.
  73. ↑ Tai Kang (1992). Ethnography of Alternative Enumeration Among Korean Americans in Queens, New York. Center for Survey Methods Research, Bureau of the Census. pp. 1–2.
  74. ↑ Elaine Howard Ecklund; Jerry Z. Park. "Asian American Community Participation and Religion: Civic "Model Minorities?"". Project MUSE. Baylor University. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
  75. 1 2 3 4 5 Jie Zong & Jeanne Batalova, Asian Immigrants in the United States, Migration Policy Institute (January 6, 2016).
  76. ↑ Semple, Kirk (January 8, 2013). "Asian-Americans Gain Influence in Philanthropy". The New York Times. Retrieved March 3, 2013. From 2000 to 2010, according to the Census Bureau, the number of people who identified themselves as partly or wholly Asian grew by nearly 46 percent, more than four times the growth rate of the overall population, making Asian-Americans the fastest growing racial group in the nation.
  77. ↑ Semple, Ken (June 18, 2012). "In a Shift, Biggest Wave of Migrants Is Now Asian". The New York Times. Retrieved May 3, 2017.
    "New Asian 'American Dream': Asians Surpass Hispanics in Immigration". ABC News. United States News. June 19, 2012. Retrieved May 3, 2017.
    Jonathan H. X. Lee (January 16, 2015). History of Asian Americans: Exploring Diverse Roots: Exploring Diverse Roots. ABC-CLIO. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-313-38459-2.
  78. ↑ Rivitz, Jessica (September 28, 2015). "Asians on pace to overtake Hispanics among U.S. immigrants, study shows". CNN. Atlanta. Retrieved May 3, 2017.
  79. ↑ See Pew Research Center, The Rise of Asian Americans (June 2012)
  80. ↑ Erika Lee, Chinese immigrants now largest group of new arrivals to the U.S., USA Today (July 7, 2015).
  81. ↑ Erika Lee, . "A part and apart: Asian American and immigration history". Journal of American Ethnic History 34.4 (2015): 28-42. online
  82. ↑ Roger Daniels, "The Asian-American Experience: The View from the 1990s". Multiculturalism and the Canon of American Culture 23 (1993): 131-45.
  83. ↑ Don T. Nakanishi, "A quota on excellence?: The Asian American admissions debate". Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning 21.6 (1989): 39-47.
  84. ↑ "Making a meritocracy" Economist (October 5, 2019) Vol. 433 Issue 9163, p24-25. online
  85. ↑ Haiming Liu, From Canton Restaurant to Panda Express: A History of Chinese Food in the United States (Asian American Studies Today) (2015).
  86. ↑ Fred Hoffman, Brett Kempf, and Alvi Lim. "Knowledge Management and Transfer: The Role of Cuisine in Transferring Cultural Knowledge". Issues In Information Systems 19.1 (2018) online.
  87. ↑ Judith M. Kirkendall, "Eating history: Chinese American gastronomy in Hawai'i". Chinese America: History and Perspectives (2010) 19#1: 123-32.
  88. ↑ James L. Watson (2006). Golden Arches East: McDonald's in East Asia, 2nd ed. Stanford University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 9780804767392.

Further reading

  • Bailey, Thomas A. A Diplomatic History Of The America People (9th ed. 1974) online
  • Betts, Richard K. "Wealth, power, and instability: East Asia and the United States after the Cold War". International Security 18.3 (1993): 34–77. online
  • Burns, Richard Dean, and Edward Moore Bennett, eds. Diplomats in crisis: United States-Chinese-Japanese relations, 1919-1941 (1974) short articles by scholars from all three countries. online
  • Church, Peter. A short history of South-East Asia (John Wiley & Sons, 2017).
  • Clyde, Paul H., and Burton F. Beers. The Far East: A History of Western Impacts and Eastern Responses, 1830-1975 (1975) online 3rd edition 1958
  • Cohen, Warren I. ed. Pacific Passage: The Study of American–East Asian Relations on the Eve of the Twenty-First Century (Columbia UP, 1996) 13 experts cover the historiography; online
  • Cooper, Timothy S. "Anglo-Saxons and Orientals: British-American interaction over East Asia, 1898-1914". (PhD dissertation U of Edinburgh, 2017). online
  • Dennett, Tyler. Americans in Eastern Asia (1922) online free
  • Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Anne Walthall. East Asia: A cultural, social, and political history (Cengage Learning, 2013). online
  • Flynn, Matthew J. China Contested: Western Powers in East Asia (2006), for secondary schools
  • Green, Michael J. By more than providence: Grand strategy and American power in the Asia Pacific since 1783 (Columbia UP, 2017). online; 725pp; comprehensive scholarly survey.
  • Hall, D.G.E. History of South East Asia (Macmillan International Higher Education, 1981). online 1955 edition
  • Holcombe, Charles. A History of East Asia (2d ed. Cambridge UP, 2017). excerpt
  • Iriye, Akira. Across the Pacific : an inner history of American-East Asian relations (1967) online
  • Isaacs, Harold R. Scratches on Our Minds: American Images of China and India (1958) online
  • Jensen, Richard, Jon Davidann, and Yoneyuki Sugita, eds. Trans-Pacific Relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the Twentieth Century (Praeger, 2003), 304 pp online review
  • Kurashige, Lon, ed. Pacific America: Histories of Transoceanic Crossings (2017) excerpt
  • Mackerras, Colin. Eastern Asia: An Introductory History (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1992).
  • Macnair, Harley F. & Donald Lach. Modern Far Eastern International Relations (2nd ed 1955) 1950 edition online, 780pp; focus on 1900-1950
  • Matray, James I. ed. East Asia and the United States: An Encyclopedia of relations since 1784 (2 vol. Greenwood, 2002). excerpt v 2
  • May, Ernest R.; Thomson, James C., Jr., eds. American-East Asian Relations: A Survey (Harvard UP, 1972) online
  • Miller, David Y. Modern East Asia: An Introductory History (Routledge, 2007)
  • Pletcher, David M. The Diplomacy of Involvement: American Economic Expansion Across the Pacific, 1784-1900 (2001).
  • Ricklefs, Merle C. A History of Modern Indonesia: c. 1300 to the Present (Macmillan, 1981).
  • Raghavan, Srinath. Fierce Enigmas: A History of the United States in South Asia (2018) excerpt
  • Shewmaker, Kenneth E. "Forging the 'Great Chain': Daniel Webster and the Origins of American Foreign Policy toward East Asia and the Pacific, 1841-1852". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 129.3 (1985): 225–259. online
  • Thomson, James et al. Sentimental Imperialists - The American Experience in East Asia (1981) scholarly history over 200 years.
  • Thorne, Christopher G. The limits of foreign policy; the West, the League, and the Far Eastern crisis of 1931-1933 (1972) online
  • Tyrrell, Ian. "Looking eastward: Pacific and global perspectives on American history in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries". Japanese Journal of American Studies 18 (2007): 41–57. online
  • Van Alstyne, Richard W. The United states and East Asia (1973) short survey by scholar
  • Zabriskie, E.H. American-Russian Rivalry in the Far East: A Study in Diplomacy and Power Politics, 1895-1914 (1946) online

China

  • Chang, Gordon H. Fateful Ties: A History of America's Preoccupation with China. (Harvard UP, 2015). Excerpt
  • Chang, Gordon H. Friends and Enemies: The United States, China, and the Soviet Union, 1948–1972 (Stanford UP, 1990).
  • Christensen, Thomas J. In the eyes of the dragon: China views the world (Rowman & Littlefield, 1999).
  • Chung, Jae Ho. "The Rise of China and East Asia: A New Regional Order on the Horizon?". Chinese Political Science Review 1.1 (2016): 47–59. online
  • Cohen, Warren I. America's Response to China: A History of Sino-American Relations (5th ed. 2010)
  • Dulles, Foster Rhea. China and America: The Story of Their Relations Since 1784 (1981), general survey; online
  • Dulles, Foster Rhea. American policy toward Communist China, 1949-1969 (1972) online
  • Fairbank, John K. China Perceived (1974)
  • Feis, Herbert. The China Tangle (1967), diplomacy during World War II online
  • Fenby, Jonathan and Trey McArver. The Eagle and the Dragon: Donald Trump, Xi Jinping and the Fate of US/China Relations (2019)
  • Foot, Rosemary; Walter, Andrew (2012). China, the United States, and Global Order. Cambridge UP. ISBN 9780521725194.
  • Foot, Rosemary. The Practice of Power: US Relations with China since 1949 (1995).
  • Gedalecia, David. "Letters From the Middle Kingdom: The Origins of America's China Policy", Prologue, 34.4 (Winter, 2002), pp. 260–73.
  • Goldstein, Jonathan et al. eds. America Views China: American Images of China Then and Now ( Lehigh Univ Press) 14 topical essays by scholars.
  • Haddad, John R. America's First Adventure in China: Trade, Treaties, Opium, and Salvation (2013) covers 1784 to 1868.
  • Hunt, Michael H. The Making of a Special Relationship: The United States and China to 1914 (1983), A standard scholarly history
  • Jespersen, T. Christopher. American Images of China, 1931-1949 (1999) excerpt
  • Johnson, Kendall A. The New Middle Kingdom: China and the Early American Romance of Free Trade (Johns Hopkins UP, 2017).
  • Latourette, Kenneth Scott. The history of early relations between the United States and China, 1784–1844 (1917) online
  • Li, Jing. China's America: The Chinese View the United States, 1900–2000. (State University of New York Press, 2011)
  • McLean, David. "American nationalism, the China myth, and the Truman doctrine: The question of accommodation with Peking, 1949–50". Diplomatic History 10.1 (1986): 25-42.
  • MacMillan, Margaret. Nixon and Mao: the week that changed the world (2008).
  • Madsen, Richard. China and the American Dream (1994)
  • Mann, James. About Face: A History of America's Curious Relationship with China, from Nixon to Clinton (2000).
  • Mitter, Rana. Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937–1945 (2013) excerpt
  • Oksenberg, Michel and Robert B. Oxnam, eds. Dragon and Eagle (1978),
  • Pomfret, John. The Beautiful Country and the Middle Kingdom: America and China, 1776 to the Present (2016) review
  • Purifoy, Lewis M. Harry Truman's China policy: McCarthyism and the diplomacy of hysteria, 1947-1951 (New Viewpoints, 1976).
  • Riccards, Michael P. The Presidency and the Middle Kingdom (2000)
  • Rose, Robert S. et al. Re-examining the Cold War: U.S.-China Diplomacy, 1954–1973 (2002)
  • Schaller, Michael. "FDR and the 'China Question'" in FDR's World (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) pp. 145–174.
  • Schaller, Michael. The U.S. Crusade in China, 1938-1945 (1979)
  • Song, Yuwu, ed. Encyclopedia of Chinese-American Relations (McFarland, 2006)
  • Sutter, Robert G. U.S.-Chinese Relations: Perilous Past, Pragmatic Present (2010).
  • Sutter, Robert G. Historical Dictionary of United States-China Relations (2005).
  • Varg, Paul A. "Sino‐American Relations Past and Present". Diplomatic History 4.2 (1980): 101–112. online
  • Vevier, Charles. "The Open Door: An Idea in Action, 1906-1913". Pacific Historical Review 24.1 (1955): 49–62. online
  • Vogelmann, Jörg. The ascent of China as a new superpower and the relationship with the hegemonic United States: Rough power politics or peaceful economic cooperation?(GRIN Verlag, 2008).
  • Wang, Dong. The United States and China: A History from the Eighteenth Century to the Present (2013)
  • Wang, Dong. "Grand Strategy, Power Politics, and China's Policy toward the United States in the 1960s", Diplomatic History 42:1 (April 2017): 265–287;
  • Westad, Odd Arne, "The Sources of Chinese Conduct: Are Washington and Beijing Fighting a New Cold War?", Foreign Affairs, vol. 98, no. 5 (September / October 2019), pp. 86–95.
  • Yan, Xuetong (Autumn 2010). "The instability of China–US relations". The Chinese Journal of International Politics. 3 (3): 263–92. doi:10.1093/cjip/poq009. S2CID 154460100.
  • Zhang, Biwu. Chinese Perceptions of the U.S.: An Exploration of China's Foreign Policy Motivations (Lexington Books; 2012) 266 pages.

Japan

  • Asada, Sadao. From Mahan to Pearl Harbor: The Imperial Japanese Navy and the United States (Naval Institute Press, 2013).
  • Dahl, Elizabeth. "The Implications of Japan Bashing for US-Japan Relations". Swords & Plowshares: A Journal of International Relations (1999).
  • Davidann, Jon. Cultural diplomacy in US-Japanese relations, 1919-1941 (Springer, 2007).
  • Dian, Matteo. The Evolution of the US-Japan Alliance: the eagle and the chrysanthemum (Chandos Publishing, 2014).
  • Dulles, Foster Rhea. Yankees and Samurai: America's Role in the Emergence of Modern Japan, 1791–1900 (1965)
  • Harris, Townsend, The complete journal of Townsend Harris, first American consul general and minister to Japan (1930) online primary source
  • Hook, Glenn D. et al. Japan's International Relations: Politics, Economics and Security (2011) excerpt
  • Johnson, Sheila K. American attitudes toward Japan, 1941-1975 (1975) online
  • LaFeber, Walter. The Clash: A History of US–Japan Relations (W.W. Norton, 1997), a major scholarly survey online
  • Neu, Charles E. The troubled encounter: the United States and Japan (1975)
  • Nimmo, William F. Stars and Stripes Across the Pacific: The United States, Japan, and Asia/Pacific Region, 1895-1945 (Greenwood, 2001). excerpt

Historiography

  • Aruga, Natsuki, "Viewing American History from Japan" in Nicolas Barreyre; et al. (2014). Historians Across Borders: Writing American History in a Global Age. U of California Press. pp. 189–97. ISBN 9780520279292.
  • Cohen, Warren I. "The History of American-East Asian Relations: Cutting Edge of the Historical Profession". Diplomatic History. (1985) 9#2: 101–112. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.1985.tb00525.x
  • Cohen, Warren I. ed. Pacific Passage: The Study of American–East Asian Relations on the Eve of the Twenty-First Century (Columbia UP, 1996) 13 experts cover the historiography
  • Dower, John. 'Occupied Japan as History and Occupation History as Politics", Journal of Asian Studies (1975) 34#2 485–504.
  • Hall, John Whitney. Japanese History: New Dimensions of Approach and Understanding (1961)
  • Pederson, William D. ed. A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt (2011) FDR and China & India pp. 590–611; on Japan pp. 612–35.
  • Reischauer, Edwin. My Life Between Japan And America (1986). online
  • Ricard, Serge, ed. A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt (2011) and Japan, pp 368–416
  • Roberts, Priscilla. "New Perspectives on Cold War History from China", Diplomatic History 41:2 (April 2017) online
  • Xia, Yafeng and Zhi Liang. "China's Diplomacy toward the United States in the Twentieth Century: A Survey of the Literature", Diplomatic History 42:1 (April 2017): 241–264.

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