In medicine and medical anthropology, a culture-bound syndrome, culture-specific syndrome, or folk illness is a combination of psychiatric and somatic symptoms that are considered to be a recognizable disease only within a specific society or culture. There are no objective biochemical or structural alterations of body organs or functions, and the disease is not recognized in other cultures. The term culture-bound syndrome was included in the fourth version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) which also includes a list of the most common culture-bound conditions (DSM-IV: Appendix I). Counterpart within the framework of ICD-10 (Chapter V) are the culture-specific disorders defined in Annex 2 of the Diagnostic criteria for research.[1]

More broadly, an endemic that can be attributed to certain behavior patterns within a specific culture by suggestion may be referred to as a potential behavioral epidemic. As in the cases of drug use, or alcohol and smoking abuses, transmission can be determined by communal reinforcement and person-to-person interactions. On etiological grounds, it can be difficult to distinguish the causal contribution of culture upon disease from other environmental factors such as toxicity.[2]

Identification

A culture-specific syndrome is characterized by:

  • categorization as a disease in the culture (i.e., not a voluntary behaviour or false claim)
  • widespread familiarity in the culture
  • complete lack of familiarity or misunderstanding of the condition to people in other cultures
  • no objectively demonstrable biochemical or tissue abnormalities (signs)
  • recognition and treatment by the folk medicine of the culture

Some culture-specific syndromes involve somatic symptoms (pain or disturbed function of a body part), while others are purely behavioral. Some culture-bound syndromes appear with similar features in several cultures, but with locally specific traits, such as penis panics.

A culture-specific syndrome is not the same as a geographically localized disease with specific, identifiable, causal tissue abnormalities, such as kuru or sleeping sickness, or genetic conditions limited to certain populations. It is possible that a condition originally assumed to be a culture-bound behavioral syndrome is found to have a biological cause; from a medical perspective it would then be redefined into another nosological category.

Medical perspectives

The American Psychiatric Association states the following:[3]

The term culture-bound syndrome denotes recurrent, locality-specific patterns of aberrant behavior and troubling experience that may or may not be linked to a particular DSM-IV diagnostic category. Many of these patterns are indigenously considered to be "illnesses," or at least afflictions, and most have local names. Although presentations conforming to the major DSM-IV categories can be found throughout the world, the particular symptoms, course, and social response are very often influenced by local cultural factors. In contrast, culture-bound syndromes are generally limited to specific societies or culture areas and are localized, folk, diagnostic categories that frame coherent meanings for certain repetitive, patterned, and troubling sets of experiences and observations.

The term culture-bound syndrome is controversial since it reflects the different opinions of anthropologists and psychiatrists.[4] Anthropologists have a tendency to emphasize the relativistic and culture-specific dimensions of the syndromes, while physicians tend to emphasize the universal and neuropsychological dimensions.[5][6] Guarnaccia & Rogler (1999) have argued in favor of investigating culture-bound syndromes on their own terms, and believe that the syndromes have enough cultural integrity to be treated as independent objects of research.[7]

Guarnaccia and Rogler demonstrate the issues that occur when diagnosing cultural bound disorders using the DSM-IV. One of the key problems that arise is the "subsumption of culture bound syndromes into psychiatric categories",[7] which ultimately creates a medical hegemony and places the western perspective above that of other cultural and epistemological explanations of disease. The urgency for further investigation or reconsideration of the DSM-IV's authoritative power is emphasized, as the DSM becomes an international document for research and medical systems abroad. Guarnaccia and Rogler provide two research questions that must be considered, "firstly, how much do we know about the culture-bound syndromes for us to be able to fit them into standard classification; and secondly, whether such a standard and exhaustive classification in fact exists".[7]

It is suggested that the problematic nature of the DSM becomes evident when viewed as definitively conclusive. Questions are raised to whether culture-bound syndromes can be treated as discrete entities, or whether their symptoms are generalized and perceived as an amalgamation of previously diagnosed illnesses. If this is the case, then the DSM may be what Bruno Latour would define as "particular universalism". In that the Western medical system views itself to have a privileged insight into the true intelligence of nature, in contrast to the model provided by other cultural perspectives.[8]

Some studies suggest that culture-bound syndromes represent an acceptable way within a specific culture (and cultural context) among certain vulnerable individuals (i.e. an ataque de nervios at a funeral in Puerto Rico) to express distress in the wake of a traumatic experience.[9] A similar manifestation of distress when displaced into a North American medical culture may lead to a very different, even adverse outcome for a given individual and his or her family.[10] The history and etymology of some syndromes such as brain-fog syndrome, have also been reattributed to 19th century Victorian Britain rather than West Africa.[11]

In 2013, the DSM 5 dropped the term culture-bound syndrome, preferring the new name "cultural concepts of distress".[12]

Cultural collusion between medical perspectives

Within the traditional Hmong culture, epilepsy (qaug dab peg) directly translates to "the spirit catches you and you fall down" which is said to be an evil spirit called a dab that captures one's soul and makes one ill. In this culture, individuals with seizures are seen to be blessed with a gift: an access point into the spiritual realm which no one else has been given.[13] In westernised society, epilepsy is recognized as a serious long-term brain condition, that can have a major impairment on an individual's life. The way the illness is dealt with in Hmong culture is vastly different due to the high-status epilepsy has amongst the culture, compared to individuals who have the condition in westernised societies. Individuals with epilepsy within the Hmong culture are a source of pride for their family.[14]

Another culture-bound illness is neurasthenia, which is a vaguely described medical ailment in Chinese culture that presents as lassitude, weariness, headaches, and irritability and is mostly linked to emotional disturbance. A report done in 1942 showed that 87% of patients diagnosed by Chinese psychiatrists as having neurasthenia could be reclassified as having major depression according to the DSM-3 criteria.[15] Another study conducted in Hong Kong showed that most patients selectively presented their symptoms according to what they perceived as appropriate and tended to only focus on somatic suffering, rather than the emotional problems they were facing.[16][17]

Globalisation

Globalisation is a process whereby information, cultures, jobs, goods, and services are spread across national borders.[18] This has had a powerful impact on the 21st century in many ways including through enriching cultural awareness across the globe. Greater level of cultural integration is occurring due to rapid industrialisation and globalisation, with cultures absorbing more influences from each other. As cultural awareness begins to increase between countries, there is a consideration into whether cultural bound syndromes will slowly lose their geographically bound nature and become commonly known syndromes that will then become internationally recognised. Anthropologist and psychiatrist Roland Littlewood makes the observation that these diseases are likely to vanish in an increasingly homogenous global culture in the face of globalisation (and industrialisation).[19] Depression, for example, was once only accepted in western societies; it is now recognised as a mental disorder in all parts of the world. In contrast to Eastern civilizations such as Taiwan, depression is still much more common in Western cultures like the United States. This could indicate that globalisation may have an impact on allowing disorders to be spread across borders, but these disorders may remain predominant in certain cultures.

DSM-IV-TR list

The fourth edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders classifies the below syndromes as culture-bound syndromes:[20]

Name Geographical localization/populations
Running amok Brunei, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Timor-Leste
Ataque de nervios Latinos in the United States and Latin America
Bilis, cólera
Bouffée délirante France and French-speaking countries
Brain fog syndrome West African students
Dhat syndrome India
Falling-out, blacking out Southern United States and Caribbean
Ghost sickness Native American (Navajo, Muscogee/Creek)
Hwabyeong Korean
Koro Chinese, Malaysian and Indonesian populations in Southeast Asia; Assam; occasionally in the West
Latah Malaysia and Indonesia, as well as the Philippines (as mali-mali, particularly among Tagalogs)
Locura Latinos in the United States and Latin America
Mal de pelea Puerto Rico
Evil eye Mediterranean; Hispanic populations and Ethiopia
Piblokto Arctic and subarctic Inuit populations
Zou huo ru mo (Qigong psychotic reaction) Han Chinese
Rootwork Southern United States, Caribbean nations
Sangue dormido Cape Verde
Shenjing shuairuo Han Chinese
Shenkui, shen-k'uei Han Chinese
Shinbyeong Koreans
Spell African American, White populations in the Southern United States and Ethiopia
Susto Latinos in the United States; Mexico, Central America and South America
Taijin kyofusho Japanese
Zār Ethiopia, Somalia, Egypt, Sudan, Iran, and other North African and Middle Eastern societies

DSM-5 list

The fifth edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders classifies the below syndromes as cultural concepts of distress, a closely related concept:[21]

Name Geographical localization/populations
Ataque de nervios Latin America
Dhat syndrome India
Khyâl cap Cambodian
Ghost sickness Native American
Kufungisisa Zimbabwe
Maladi moun Haiti
Shenjing shuairuo Han Chinese
Susto Latinos in the United States; Mexico, Central and South America
Taijin kyofusho Japanese

ICD-10 list

The 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) classifies the below syndromes as culture-specific disorders:[1]

Name Geographical localization/populations
Amok Southeast Asian Austronesians
Dhat syndrome (dhātu), shen-k'uei, jiryan India; Taiwan
Koro, suk yeong, jinjin bemar Southeast Asia, India, China
Latah Malaysia and Indonesia
Ataque de nervios Mexico, Central and South America
Pa-leng (frigophobia) Taiwan; Southeast Asia
Pibloktoq (Arctic hysteria) Inuit living within the Arctic Circle
Susto, espanto Mexico, Central and South America
Taijin kyofusho, shinkeishitsu (anthropophobia) Japan
Ufufuyane, saka Kenya; southern Africa (among Bantu, Zulu, and affiliated groups)
Uqamairineq Inuit living within the Arctic Circle
Fear of Windigo Indigenous people of north-east America

Other examples

Though "the ethnocentric bias of Euro-American psychiatrists has led to the idea that culture-bound syndromes are confined to non-Western cultures",[22] within the contiguous United States, the consumption of kaolin, a type of clay, has been proposed as a culture-bound syndrome observed in African Americans in the rural South, particularly in areas in which the mining of kaolin is common.[23]

In South Africa, among the Xhosa people, the syndrome of amafufunyana is commonly used to describe those believed to be possessed by demons or other malevolent spirits. Traditional healers in the culture usually perform exorcisms in order to drive off these spirits. Upon investigating the phenomenon, researchers found that many of the people claimed to be affected by the syndrome exhibited the traits and characteristics of schizophrenia.[24]

Some researchers have suggested that both premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and the more severe premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), which have currently unknown physical mechanisms,[25][26][27] are Western culture-bound syndromes.[28][29] However, this is controversial.[28]

Tarantism is an expression of mass psychogenic illness documented in Southern Italy since the 11th century.[30]

Morgellons is a rare self-diagnosed skin condition reported primarily in white populations in the United States.[31] It has been described by a journalist as "a socially transmitted disease over the Internet".[32]

Vegetative-vascular dystonia can be considered an example of somatic condition formally recognised by local medical communities in former Soviet Union countries, but not in Western classification systems. Its umbrella term nature as neurological condition also results in diagnosing neurotic patients as neurological ones,[33][34] in effect substituting possible psychiatric stigma with culture-bound syndrome disguised as a neurological condition.

Refugee children in Sweden have been known to fall into coma-like states on learning their families will be deported. The condition, known in Swedish as uppgivenhetssyndrom, or resignation syndrome, is believed to only exist among the refugee population in Sweden, where it has been prevalent since the early part of the 21st century. In a 130-page report on the condition commissioned by the government and published in 2006, a team of psychologists, political scientists, and sociologists hypothesized that it was a culture-bound syndrome.[35]

A startle disorder similar to latah, called imu (sometimes spelled imu:), is found among Ainu people, both Sakhalin Ainu and Hokkaido Ainu.[36][37]

A condition similar to piblokto, called menerik (sometimes meryachenie), is found among Yakuts, Yukaghirs, and Evenks living in Siberia.[38]

The trance-like violent behavior of the Viking age berserkers – behavior that disappeared with the arrival of Christianity – has been described as a culture-bound syndrome.[39]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Diagnostic criteria for research, p. 213–225 (WHO 1993)
  2. ↑ Porta, Miquel, ed. (2008). "Behavioral epidemic". A Dictionary of Epidemiology (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-19-157844-1. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
  3. ↑ American Psychiatric Association (2000), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed., text revision, American Psychiatric Pub, p. 898, ISBN 978-0-89042-025-6
  4. ↑ Perry, S. (2012, 13 January). The controversy over 'culture-bound' mental illnesses. Retrieved 27 January 2013 from MinnPost.
  5. ↑ Prince, Raymond H (June 2000). "Transcultural Psychiatry: Personal Experiences and Canadian Perspectives". The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 45 (5): 431–437. doi:10.1177/070674370004500502. ISSN 0706-7437. PMID 10900522. S2CID 2159608.
  6. ↑ Jilek, W.G. (2001), "Psychiatric Disorders: Culture-specific", International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Elsevier, pp. 12272–12277, doi:10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/03679-2, ISBN 9780080430768
  7. 1 2 3 Guarnaccia, Peter J.; Rogler, Lloyd H. (September 1999). "Research on Culture-Bound Syndromes: New Directions". American Journal of Psychiatry. 156 (9): 1322–1327. doi:10.1176/ajp.156.9.1322. PMID 10484940.
  8. ↑ Latour, Bruno (1991). We Have Never Been Modern (PDF). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 105.
  9. ↑ Schechter, Daniel S.; Marshall, Randall; Salmán, Ester; Goetz, Deborah; Davies, Sharon; Liebowitz, Michael R. (July 2000). "Ataque de nervios and history of childhood trauma". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 13 (3): 529–534. doi:10.1023/a:1007797611148. ISSN 0894-9867. PMID 10948492. S2CID 33348909.
  10. ↑ Schechter, Daniel S.; Kaminer, Tammy; Grienenberger, John F.; Amat, Jose (2003). "Fits and Starts: A Mother-Infant Case-Study Involving Intergenerational Violent Trauma and Pseudoseizures Across Three Generations". Infant Mental Health Journal. 24 (5): 510–528. doi:10.1002/imhj.10070. ISSN 0163-9641. PMC 2078527. PMID 18007961.
  11. ↑ Ayonrinde, Oyedeji A. (26 June 2020). "'Brain fag': a syndrome associated with 'overstudy' and mental exhaustion in 19th century Britain". International Review of Psychiatry. 32 (5–6): 520–535. doi:10.1080/09540261.2020.1775428. ISSN 0954-0261. PMID 32589474. S2CID 220121013.
  12. ↑ American Psychiatric Association (22 May 2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596. hdl:2027.42/138395. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8.
  13. ↑ "When Epilepsy Goes By Another Name". Epilepsy Foundation. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
  14. ↑ Khalil, Nadia; McMillan, Stephanie; Benbadis, Selim R.; Robertson, Derrick (February 2021). "Fish soup for the falling sickness: Tracing epilepsy through Hmong and Western beliefs". Epilepsy & Behavior. 115: 107725. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107725. PMID 33434883. S2CID 231201804.
  15. ↑ Kleinman, Arthur (1 June 1982). "Neurasthenia and depression: A study of somatization and culture in China". Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry. 6 (2): 117–190. doi:10.1007/BF00051427. ISSN 1573-076X. PMID 7116909. S2CID 23591895.
  16. ↑ Cheung, Fanny M.; Lau, Bernard W. K. (1 May 1982). "Situational variations of help-seeking behavior among Chinese patients". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 23 (3): 252–262. doi:10.1016/0010-440X(82)90073-6. ISSN 0010-440X. PMID 7083852.
  17. ↑ Cheung, Fanny M. (1985), "An Overview of Psychopathology in Hong Kong with Special Reference to Somatic Presentation", Chinese Culture and Mental Health, Elsevier, pp. 287–304, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-701630-6.50028-9, ISBN 978-0-12-701630-6, retrieved 27 August 2022
  18. ↑ Scholte, Jan Aart (14 September 2007). "Defining Globalisation". The World Economy. 31 (11): 070916231942004––. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9701.2007.01019.x. ISSN 0378-5920. S2CID 219969085.
  19. ↑ Littlewood, Roland (4 October 2008). "Illness in an anthropological context". The Lancet. 372 (9645): 1211–1212. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61503-2. ISSN 0140-6736.
  20. ↑ American Psychiatric Association (2000), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed., text revision, American Psychiatric Pub, pp. 898–901, ISBN 978-0-89042-025-6
  21. ↑ American Psychiatric Association (2013), Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed., pp. 833–837, ISBN 978-0-89042-554-1
  22. ↑ Prince, R.; Thebaud, E. F. (3 September 2016). "Is Anorexia Nervosa a Culture-Bound Syndrome?". Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review. 20 (4): 299–302. doi:10.1177/136346158302000419. S2CID 144358885.
  23. ↑ Grigsby RK, Thyer BA, Waller RJ, Johnston GA Jr. (February 1992). "Chalk Eating in Middle Georgia: A Culture-Bound Syndrome of Pica?" South Med J. (2): 190–192.
  24. ↑ Niehaus DJ, Oosthuizen P, Lochner C, Emsley RA, Jordaan E, Mbanga NI, Keyter N, Laurent C, Deleuze JF, Stein DJ (March–April 2004). "A culture-bound syndrome 'amafufunyana' and a culture-specific event 'ukuthwasa': differentiated by a family history of schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders". Psychopathology. Karger Publishers. 37 (2): 59–63. doi:10.1159/000077579. PMID 15057028. S2CID 23545601.
  25. ↑ Hunter, Melissa H.; Mazyck, Pamela J.; Dickerson, Lori M. (15 April 2003). "Premenstrual Syndrome". American Family Physician. 67 (8): 1743–1752. ISSN 0002-838X. PMID 12725453.
  26. ↑ Richardson, J. T. (September 1995). "The premenstrual syndrome: a brief history". Social Science & Medicine. 41 (6): 761–767. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(95)00042-6. ISSN 0277-9536. PMID 8571146.
  27. ↑ Rapkin, Andrea J.; Akopians, Alin L. (June 2012). "Pathophysiology of premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder". Menopause International. 18 (2): 52–59. doi:10.1258/mi.2012.012014. ISSN 1754-0461. PMID 22611222. S2CID 25219334.
  28. 1 2 Alia Offman, Peggy J. Kleinplatz (2004). "Does PMDD Belong in the DSM? Challenging the Medicalization of Women's Bodies". Archived 2011-06-28 at the Wayback Machine Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, Vol. 13.
  29. ↑ Johnson, T. M. (September 1987). "Premenstrual syndrome as a western culture-specific disorder". Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry. 11 (3): 337–356. doi:10.1007/BF00048518. ISSN 0165-005X. PMID 3677777. S2CID 30238189.
  30. ↑ Russell JF (October 1979). "Tarantism". Med Hist. 23 (4): 404–25. doi:10.1017/s0025727300052054. PMC 1082580. PMID 390267.
  31. ↑ Savely, Virginia R; Stricker, Raphael B (13 May 2010). "Morgellons disease: Analysis of a population with clinically confirmed microscopic subcutaneous fibers of unknown etiology". Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology. 3: 67–78. doi:10.2147/ccid.s9520. ISSN 1178-7015. PMC 3047951. PMID 21437061.
  32. ↑ "Pathogens & People: Internet helps spread delusion that Morgellons a disease". Hometown Annapolis. 9 July 2011. Archived from the original on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
  33. ↑ Mikhaylov B (2010). "P02-34 -Statistical issues of the psychiatric care in Ukraine". European Psychiatry. 25: 652. doi:10.1016/S0924-9338(10)70647-7. S2CID 70674537. Retrieved 2 October 2016.
  34. ↑ Kudinova, O.; Mykhaylov, B. (2014). "EPA-1025 - Integrative psychotherapy model of anxiety disorders". European Psychiatry. 29 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1016/S0924-9338(14)78319-1. ISSN 0924-9338. PMID 24119631. S2CID 145677211.
  35. ↑ Rachel Aviv (3 April 2017). "The Trauma of Facing Deportation". The New Yorker. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
  36. ↑ Tseng, Wen-Shing (6 June 2001). Handbook of Cultural Psychiatry. Academic Press. p. 250. ISBN 9780127016320.
  37. ↑ Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko (8 May 2014). Illness and Healing among the Sakhalin Ainu. Cambridge University Press. p. 198. ISBN 9781107634787.
  38. ↑ Sidorov, P. I.; Davydov, A. N. (1992). "Ethnopsychiatric research in the national minorities of Northern Russia and Siberia". Bekhterev Review of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology. Washington. ISBN 0-88048-667-8. ISSN 1064-6930.
  39. ↑ Høyersten, Jon Geir (16 December 2004). "The berserks—what was wrong with them?". Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforening: Tidsskrift for Praktisk Medicin, NY Raekke. 124 (24): 3247–3250. ISSN 0807-7096. PMID 15608781.

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