Greater London
and
London (region)
Ceremonial county and region
The City of London; City Hall in Newham, the headquarters of the Greater London Authority; and Hampstead Heath
Greater London ceremonial county (red)
City of London (red & white stripes)
Greater London administrative area (London Region) (both)
Sovereign stateUnited Kingdom
Constituent countryEngland
Established1 April 1965
Established byLondon Government Act 1963
Time zoneUTC±00:00 (Greenwich Mean Time)
 • Summer (DST)UTC+01:00 (British Summer Time)
Members of Parliament73 MPs
Police
Ceremonial county
Lord LieutenantKen Olisa
High SheriffIna De
Area1,569 km2 (606 sq mi)
 • Ranked25th of 48
Population (2021)8,899,375
 • Ranked1st of 48
Density5,671/km2 (14,690/sq mi)
Ethnicity
Region
GovernmentGreater London Authority
• Mayor Sadiq Khan
• London Assembly
Admin HQCity Hall, Newham
Area1,572 km2 (607 sq mi)
Population8,796,628[1]
Density5,596/km2 (14,490/sq mi)
GSS codeE12000007
ITLTLI
Website

Ceremonial counties of the London Region
Counties
  1. City of London
  2. Greater London

The City of London and the 32 London boroughs
 
List

Greater London is the administrative area of London, England,[2] coterminous with the London region. It contains 33 local government districts: the 32 London boroughs, which form a ceremonial county also called Greater London, and the City of London. The Greater London Authority is responsible for strategic local government across the region, and regular local government is the responsibility of the borough councils and the City of London Corporation. Greater London is bordered by the ceremonial counties of Hertfordshire to the north, Essex to the north-east, Kent to the south-east, Surrey to the south, and Berkshire and Buckinghamshire to the west.

Greater London has a geographic area of 1,572 km2 (607 sq mi) and a population of 9,002,488. The ceremonial county of Greater London is only slightly smaller, with an area of 1,569 km2 (606 sq mi) and a population of 8,889,375. The area is almost entirely urbanised and contains the majority of the Greater London Built-up area, which extends into Hertfordshire, Essex, Kent, Surrey, and Berkshire and has a population of 9,787,426. None of the administrative area, region, or ceremonial county hold city status, but the boroughs of the City of London and City of Westminster do. The area was historically part of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent and Hertfordshire.

The River Thames is the defining geographic feature of the area, entering it near Hampton in the west and flowing east before exiting downstream of Dagenham. Several tributaries of the Thames flow through the area, but are now mostly culverted and form part of London's sewerage system. The land immediately north and south of the river is flat, but rises to low hills further away, notably Hampstead Heath, Shooter's Hill, and Sydenham Hill. The area's highest point is Westerham Heights (245 m (804 ft)), part of the North Downs. In the north-east the area contains part of Epping Forest, an ancient woodland.

The City of London has had its own government since the Anglo-Saxon period. The first London-wide directly elected local government was the London County Council, established for the County of London in 1889, which covered the core of the urban area. In 1965 the county was abolished and replaced by Greater London, a two-tier administrative area governed by the Greater London Council, thirty-two London boroughs, and the City of London Corporation.[3] The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, and its responsibilities largely taken over by the boroughs. The Greater London Authority was formed in 2000.

Administrative history

The term "Greater London" was used before it was established by statute in 1965. It referred to the Metropolitan Police District, the area served by the Metropolitan Water Board, the London Passenger Transport Area, and the area defined by the Registrar General as the "Greater London Conurbation".[4][5][6] The term was also used for the Greater London Arterial Road Programme, devised between 1913 and 1916, and the Greater London Planning Region, devised in 1927, which occupied 1,856 square miles (4,810 km2) and included 9 million people.[7][5]

Proposals to expand the County of London

Arms of the former London County Council

Although the London County Council (LCC) and County of London were created in 1889, the area did not cover all of London. London's built-up area, postal district, transport network and Metropolitan Police District, extended vastly beyond the boundaries of the new administrative county. Many of the LCC housing projects, including the vast Becontree Estates, were also outside its boundaries.[8] The LCC pressed for an alteration in its boundaries soon after the end of the First World War, noting that within the Metropolitan and City Police Districts there were 122 housing authorities. A Royal Commission on London Government was set up to consider the issue.[9][10] The LCC proposed a vast new area for Greater London, with a boundary somewhere between the Metropolitan Police District and the home counties.[11] Protests were made at the possibility of including Windsor, Slough and Eton in the authority.[12] The commission made its report in 1923, rejecting the LCC's scheme. Two minority reports favoured change beyond the amalgamation of smaller urban districts, including both smaller borough councils and a central authority for strategic functions. The London Traffic Act 1924 was a result of the commission.[13] Reform of local government in the County of London and its environs was next considered by the Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London, chaired by Sir Edwin Herbert, which issued the 'Herbert Report' after three years of work in 1960. The commission applied three tests to decide if a community should form part of Greater London: how strong is the area as an independent centre in its own right; how strong are its ties to London; and how strongly is it drawn outwards towards the country rather than inwards towards London.

Greater London is created

Arms of the former Greater London Council

Greater London was created by the London Government Act 1963, which came into force on 1 April 1965, replacing the administrative counties of Middlesex and London, including the City of London, where the London County Council had limited powers, and absorbing parts of Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent and Surrey. Greater London originally had a two-tier system of local government, with the Greater London Council (GLC) sharing power with the City of London Corporation (governing the small City of London) and the 32 London Borough councils. The GLC was abolished in 1986 by the Local Government Act 1985. Its functions were devolved to the City Corporation and the London Boroughs, with some functions transferred to central government and joint boards.[14] Greater London formed the London region in 1994.

Greater London Authority

Logo of the Greater London Authority

The 1998 London referendum established a public will to recreate an upper tier of government to cover the region. The Greater London Authority, London Assembly and the directly elected Mayor of London were created in 2000 by the Greater London Authority Act 1999. In 2000, the outer boundary of the Metropolitan Police District was re-aligned to the Greater London boundary. The 2000 and 2004 mayoral elections were won by Ken Livingstone (L), who had been the final leader of the GLC. The 2008 and 2012 elections were won by Boris Johnson (C). The 2016 and 2021 elections were won by Sadiq Khan (L). London was covered by a single Parliamentary constituency in the European Parliament before Brexit.

Geography

Map of Greater London showing railway lines, primary roads, motorways, and suburban towns
The London postal district in red in contrast to Greater London

Greater London includes the most closely associated parts of the Greater London Urban Area and their historic buffers and includes, in five boroughs, significant parts of the Metropolitan Green Belt which protects designated greenfield land in a similar way to the city's parks. The closest and furthest boundaries are with Essex to the northeast between Sewardstonebury next to Epping Forest and Chingford and with the Mar Dyke between Bulphan and North Ockendon. Greater London is also bounded by Hertfordshire to the north, Berkshire and Buckinghamshire to the west, Kent to the southeast and Surrey to the south and southwest. The highest point is Westerham Heights, in the North Downs and on the boundary with Kent, at 245 m (804 ft).[15] Central government has implemented small boundary changes. The greatest were the 1969 transfers of Farleigh to Surrey and Knockholt to Kent.[16] Others have included exchange of two Thames islands with Surrey and adjustments during the 1990s to parts of the boundaries of three boroughs near the M25.[17] The only part of Greater London outside the motorway is North Ockendon, the furthest land unit from its centre. The majority of Greater London forms the London Low Emission Zone (LEZ) and the Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ).

The London postal district does not cover all of Greater London.[18][19][20]

Governance

Greater London Authority

Greater London is under the strategic local governance of the Greater London Authority (GLA).[21] It consists of an elected assembly, the London Assembly, and an executive head, the Mayor of London.[22]

The current Mayor (not to be confused with the Lord Mayor of London) is Sadiq Khan. He is scrutinised by the elected London Assembly, which may amend his annual budget (by two-thirds majority) but otherwise lacks the power to block his directives. The headquarters of the GLA, previously at City Hall in Southwark, moved to The Crystal in Newham in January 2022.[23] The Mayor is responsible for Greater London's strategic planning and is required to produce or amend the London Plan each electoral cycle.

Mayor of London

The Mayor of London is a directly elected politician who, along with the London Assembly, is responsible for the strategic government of Greater London.

London Assembly

For elections to the London Assembly, London is divided into 14 constituencies, each formed from two or three boroughs. The City of London forms part of the City and East constituency.

UK Parliament

London is divided into 73 Parliamentary borough constituencies, formed from the combined area of several wards from one or more boroughs. Typically a borough is covered by two or three constituencies.

Status

The London Region does not have city status granted by the Crown. The Cities of London and Westminster within it have received formal city status.[24][note 1] Despite this, Greater London is commonly regarded as a city in the general senses of a conurbation and a municipality. A Lord Lieutenant of Greater London is appointed for its area, excluding the City of London. For the purposes of the Lieutenancies Act 1997, this area is defined as a county.[25]

The term "London" usually refers to region or to the conurbation, but not often to the ancient, tiny City of London.[26][27] That small area is often referred to as "the City" or "the Square Mile" and it forms the main financial district. Archaically, the urbanised area of London was known as the Metropolis. In common usage, the terms "London" and "Greater London" are usually used interchangeably.[26] Greater London is officially divided for some purposes, with varying definitions, into Inner London and Outer London. For some strategic planning purposes, it is divided into five sub-regions.

Local government

Greater London is divided into 32 London Boroughs, each governed by a London Borough council. The City of London has a unique government dating back to the 12th century and is separate from the county of Greater London, although is still part of the region served by the Greater London Authority.[26]

All London Borough councils belong to the London Councils association. Three London Boroughs carry the honorific title of Royal Borough: Kensington and Chelsea, Kingston, and Greenwich. Within the City of London are the liberties of Middle Temple and Inner Temple.

Demography

2011 United Kingdom Census[28]
Country of birth Population
United Kingdom United Kingdom 5,175,677
India India 262,247
Poland Poland 158,300
Republic of Ireland Ireland 129,807
Nigeria Nigeria 114,718
Pakistan Pakistan 112,457
Bangladesh Bangladesh 109,948
Jamaica Jamaica 87,467
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka 84,542
France France 66,654
Somalia Somalia 65,333
Kenya Kenya 64,212
United States United States 63,920
Ghana Ghana 62,896
Italy Italy 62,050
Turkey Turkey 59,596
South Africa South Africa 57,765
Germany Germany 55,476
Australia Australia 53,959
Romania Romania 44,848
Philippines Philippines 44,199
Cyprus Cyprus 43,428
Portugal Portugal 41,041
Lithuania Lithuania 39,817
China China 39,452
Afghanistan Afghanistan 37,680
Iran Iran 37,339
Spain Spain 35,880
Uganda Uganda 32,136
Brazil Brazil 31,357
View from the top of Tolworth tower over the local area
High resolution view from the top of Tolworth Tower in South West London over the sprawling suburban housing that is typical in some areas of Greater London

With increasing industrialisation, London's population grew rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, and it was the most populated city in the world until overtaken by New York in 1925. Its population peaked at 8,615,245 in 1939. There were an estimated 7,753,600 official residents in mid-2009.[29]

London's wider metropolitan area has a population of between 12 and 13 million depending on the definition of that area. According to Eurostat, London has been the most populous city and metropolitan area of the European Union.

The region covers an area of 1,579 square kilometres. The population density is 4,761 people per square kilometre, more than ten times that of any other British region. In terms of population, London is the 25th largest city and the 17th largest metropolitan region in the world. It is ranked 4th in the world in the number of US dollar billionaires residing in the city. It ranks as one of the most expensive cities in the world, alongside Tokyo and Moscow.

Ethnic groups

In the 2001 UK Census, 71.15% of the population classed their ethnic group as White, including White British (59.79%), White Irish (3.07%) or "Other White" (8.29%, mostly Greek-Cypriot, Italian, Polish and Portuguese). 12.09% classed themselves as British Asian, including Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi and "Other Asian" (mostly Sri Lankan, Arab and other Southern Asian ethnicities). 10.91% classed themselves as Black British (around 6% as Black African, 4% as Black Caribbean, 0.84% as "Other Black"). 3.15% were of mixed race; 1.12% as Chinese; and 1.58% as other (mostly Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese and other "British Orientals"). 21.8% of inhabitants were born outside the European Union. Irish people, from both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, number about 200,000, as do the Scots and Welsh combined.

In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that there were more than 300 languages spoken and more than 50 non-indigenous communities with a population of more than 10,000. Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that in 2006 London's foreign-born population was 2,288,000 (31%), up from 1,630,000 in 1997. The 2001 UK Census showed that 27.1% of the population were born outside the UK, and a slightly higher proportion were classed as Non-White.

In the 2011 UK Census, 59.79% of the population classed their ethnic group as White, including White British (44.89%), White Irish (2.15%) or "Other White" (12.65%, mostly Greek-Cypriot, Italian, Polish, Spanish, Colombians and Portuguese). 18.49% classed themselves as British Asian, including Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi and "Other Asian" (mostly Sri Lankan, Arab and other Southern Asian ethnicities). 13.32% classed themselves as Black British (7% as Black African, 4.22% as Black Caribbean, 2.08% as "Other Black"). 4.96% were of mixed race; and 3.44% as other (mostly Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese and other "British Orientals").

The table shows the top 21 countries of birth of residents in 2011.[30] These figures do not give a fair indication of the total population of the specific ethnic groups associated with each country. For example, Londoners of Greek origin (from both Greece and Cyprus) number 300,000, since an organised Greek community has been established for nearly two centuries. The same can be said for Italian and French Londoners whose communities have been here for centuries (the French Embassy estimates there are between 300,000 and 400,000 French citizens living in the UK, with "a huge majority of them living in London").[31] Though a Polish community has existed in London since the late-Middle Ages, it was not significant in the 2001 Census but has grown significantly since 2004, when Poland joined the European Union and by June 2010; London had 122,000 Polish residents.[32] The German-born population figure may be misleading, however, because it includes British nationals born to parents serving in the British armed forces in Germany.

London has been a focus for immigration for centuries, whether as a place of safety or for economic reasons. Huguenots, Eastern European Jews, Cypriots and East African Asians are examples of the former; Irish, Bangladeshis and West Indians came for new lives. The East End district around Spitalfields has been first home for several ethnic groups, which have subsequently moved elsewhere in London as they gained prosperity.

Ethnic group 2001[33] 2011[34] 2021[35]
Number  % Number  % Number  %
White: British4,287,86159.79%3,669,28444.89%36.8%
White: Irish220,4883.07%175,9742.15%17.0%
White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller[Note 1]—8,1960.10%
White: Other594,8548.29%1,033,98112.65%
White: subtotal5,103,20371.15%4,887,43559.79%53.8%
Asian or Asian British: Indian436,9936.09%542,8576.64%
Asian or Asian British: Pakistani142,7491.99%223,7972.74%
Asian or Asian British: Bangladeshi153,8932.15%222,1272.72%
Asian or Asian British: Chinese[Note 2]80,2011.12%124,2501.52%
Asian or Asian British: Other Asian133,0581.86%398,5154.88%
Asian or Asian British: subtotal946,89413.20%1,511,54618.49%20.7%
Black or Black British: African378,9335.28%573,9317.02%
Black or Black British: Caribbean343,5674.79%344,5974.22%
Black or Black British: Other Black60,3490.84%170,1122.08%
Black or Black British: subtotal782,84910.92%1,088,64013.32%13.5%
Mixed: White and Black Caribbean70,9280.99%119,4251.46%
Mixed: White and Black African34,1820.48%65,4790.80%
Mixed: White and Asian59,9440.84%101,5001.24%
Mixed: Other Mixed61,0570.85%118,8751.45%
Mixed: subtotal226,1113.15%405,2794.96%5.7%
Other: Arab[Note 1]—106,0201.30%
Other: Any other ethnic group113,0341.58%175,0212.14%
Other: subtotal113,0341.58%281,0413.44%6.3%
Total7,172,091100.00%8,173,941100.00%8,899,375100.0%
  1. 1 2 New category created for the 2011 census.
  2. ↑ In 2001, listed under the 'Other ethnic group' heading.

Population

Greater London population from 1880 to 2016[36][37]

The population of the current area of Greater London rose from about 1.1 million in 1801 (when only about 850,000 people were in the urban area, while 250,000 were living in villages and towns not yet part of London) to an estimated 8.6 million in 1939, but declined to 6.7 million in 1988, before starting to rebound in the 1990s.

By 2006, the population had recovered to the level of 1970 (and the level of population in the 1920s). It has now surpassed the previous 1939 peak, and is over 9 million.

Figures here are for Greater London in its 2001 boundaries. Figures before 1971 have been reconstructed by the Office for National Statistics based on past censuses to fit the 2001 boundaries. Figures from 1981 onward are mid-year estimates (revised in August 2007), which are more accurate than the censuses, known to underestimate the population of London.

1891 5–6 April 5,572,012
1901 31 March – 1 April 6,506,954
1911 2–3 April 7,160,525
1921 19–20 June 7,386,848
1931 26–27 April 8,110,480
1939 Mid-year estimate 8,615,245
1951 8–9 April 8,196,978
1961 23–24 April 7,992,616
1965 Greater London formally created
1971 25–26 April 7,452,520
1981 Mid-year estimate 6,805,000[38]
1988 Mid-year estimate 6,729,300[39]
1991 Mid-year estimate 6,829,300[40]
2001 Mid-year estimate 7,322,400[41]
2002 Mid-year estimate 7,361,600[42]
2003 Mid-year estimate 7,364,100[43]
2004 Mid-year estimate 7,389,100[44]
2005 Mid-year estimate 7,456,100[45]
2006 Mid-year estimate 7,512,400[46]
2009 Mid-year estimate 7,753,600[46]
2013 Mid-year estimate 8,416,535[47]
2014 Mid-year estimate 8,546,761[48]
2016 Mid-year estimate 8,798,957[37]

Economy

This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added (GVA) of Inner London at current basic prices published (pp. 240–253) by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British pounds sterling.

Year Regional Gross Value Added[note 2] Agriculture[note 3] Industry[note 4] Services[note 5]
1995 64,616 7 8,147 56,461
2000 92,330 6 10,094 82,229
2003 112,090 12 10,154 101,924

Eurostat data shows the GDP of Inner London to be 232 billion euros in 2009[49] and per capita GDP of 78,000 euros.

This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Outer London at current basic prices published (pp. 240–253) by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British pounds sterling.

Year Regional Gross Value Added[note 2] Agriculture[note 3] Industry[note 4] Services[note 5]
1995 44,160 51 10,801 33,307
2000 60,304 43 12,529 47,732
2003 69,420 69 13,081 54,462

Eurostat data shows the GDP of Outer London to be 103 billion euros in 2009[49] and per capita GDP of 21,460 euros.

Religion

Westminster Abbey. A World Heritage Site and location of the coronation of British monarchs.

The largest religious groupings are Christian (48.4%), Muslim (8.4%), Hindu (8.0%), Jewish (1.8%), Sikh (1.5%), and Buddhist (1.0%), alongside those of no religion (21.7%). The United Kingdom has traditionally been Christian, and London has a large number of churches, particularly in the city. St Paul's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres, while the clerical head of the Church of England and the worldwide Anglican Communion, the Archbishop of Canterbury, has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth.

Important national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul's and Westminster Abbey. The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral, the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales. Religious practice in London is lower than in any other part of the UK or Western Europe and is around seven times lower than American averages. Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, weekly observance is low within that denomination, although in recent years church attendance, particularly at evangelical Anglican churches in London, has started to increase.

London is home to sizeable Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Muslim and Jewish communities. Many Muslims live in Tower Hamlets and Newham; the most important Muslim buildings are the East London Mosque in Whitechapel and the London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent's Park. London's large Hindu community is in the north-western boroughs of Harrow and Brent, the latter containing one of Europe's largest Hindu temples, BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London.

Sikh communities are in East and West London, particularly Southall in the western borough of Ealing, which is also home to the largest Sikh temple in the capital. The majority of British Jews live in London, with significant communities in Stamford Hill (the most Orthodox Jewish area outside New York City and Israel) and St. John's Wood, Golders Green, and Edgware in North London.

Education

Publicly funded education has been administered through 33 LEAs, which correspond to the City of London and the 32 London boroughs, since the 1990 enactment of the Education Reform Act 1988.[50] From 1965 to 1990, 12 Inner London boroughs and the City of London were served by the Inner London Education Authority.[50]

The introduction of comprehensive schools, directed by Circular 10/65 in 1965, was mostly followed in Greater London; however, 19 grammar schools have been retained in some Outer London boroughs,[51] with Sutton having the most with five, followed by Bexley with four and others in five other boroughs. In these boroughs the state schools outperform the (relatively few) independent schools. In inner London, private schools always get the best results and are larger in number. At GCSE and A level, Outer London boroughs have broadly better results than Inner London boroughs.[52]

At GCSE, the best borough is Kingston upon Thames, closely followed by Sutton. Both boroughs have selective schools, and get the top two average GCSE results in England for LEAs. Next is Kensington and Chelsea, the third best in England, then Redbridge, Hammersmith and Fulham, Bromley, Barnet and Harrow. Only ten boroughs have GCSE results under the England average, and some inner-London boroughs have surprisingly good results considering where they lie on the scale of deprivation, e.g. Lambeth. Overall at GCSE in 2009, Greater London had the best results for regions of England. Greater London is generally a prosperous region, and prosperous areas generally have good GCSE results. The City of London has no state schools, just two independent schools. Haringey and Kensington and Chelsea have the most people that pass no GCSEs.

At A-level, the average results for LEAs are disappointing compared to their good GCSE results. Although Kingston upon Thames gets the best GCSE results in England, at A-level it is not even above average. Sutton gets the best A-level results in London and in England. Three of the schools in the top four at A-level in London are in Sutton. It has only one independent school. The few other boroughs with above-average A-level results are Havering, Barnet, Bexley, Redbridge, and Ealing. The poor A-level results in many London boroughs is explained by the quantity of independent schools getting good A-level results. The state school system is often bypassed at age 16 by the more able pupils. Some London boroughs need more good sixth form colleges.

The region's 34 further education colleges are funded through the Skills Funding Agency and the Young People's Learning Agency. Large colleges include Kingston College, Havering College of Further and Higher Education, and Croydon College.

Universities

University College London, a founding constituent of the University of London

The University of London has 20 federated colleges and schools. The two main constituents of the University of London are (in order of total funding) University College London (UCL) and King's College London (KCL). Imperial College was part of the University of London until 2007, and is now an independent university. UCL, KCL and Imperial have very large research grants – some of the largest in England after Cambridge and Oxford, UCL and Imperial receive around £600 million each which is more than twice as much as any other in the region. The next largest institution by funding is Queen Mary University of London, followed by City, University of London. London is also home to the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), one of the few solely social science institutions in the world. Together with UCL and Imperial, they make up the London vertex of the Golden Triangle universities, the other institutions being Oxford and Cambridge. The region has many medical schools although these are part of other institutions such as UCL, KCL and Imperial. The Royal Veterinary College is based in Camden (with another site in North Mymms in Hertfordshire).

50% of students come from the region, and around 30% from other regions. Most students from other regions come from South East England, the East of England, and, to a lesser degree, South West England; the vast majority are from the south of England. Over 50% students native to the region stay in the region, with 15% going to South East England, 30% to either Scotland, Wales or the North East and around 5% go elsewhere. London is a draw for UK graduates from all over the UK.

Over 70% of UK students to graduate from the University of London remain in London; just under 15% go to the South-East, and just over 5% go to the East of England and 10% elsewhere.

Twin cities

The GLA has twin and sister city agreements with the following cities.[53]

CountryCityRegionYear
China China Shanghai Shanghai Municipality 2009[54]
China China Beijing Beijing Municipality 2006[55]
France France Paris Île-de-France 2001
Germany Germany Berlin Berlin 2000
Russia Russia Moscow Russian federal city 2002
United States United States New York City New York 2001[56]
Japan Japan Tokyo Tokyo 2005
Croatia Croatia Zagreb City of Zagreb 2009
India India Mumbai Maharashtra

See also

Geographical
Political
Historical
Others

Notes

  1. ↑ Croydon and Southwark have made several failed applications for city status.
  2. 1 2 Components may not sum to totals due to rounding.
  3. 1 2 Includes hunting and forestry.
  4. 1 2 Includes energy and construction.
  5. 1 2 Includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured.

References

  1. ↑ Park, Neil (21 December 2022). "Estimates of the population for the UK, England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
  2. ↑ "London Government Act 1963 - Latest Available". legislation.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  3. ↑ "London Government Act 1963 - Latest Available". legislation.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  4. ↑ Vision of Britain -Census 1901: Preliminary Report Archived 22 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  5. 1 2 Young, K. & Garside, P., Metropolitan London: Politics and Urban Change, (1982)
  6. ↑ Westergaard, J., The Structure of Greater London, London: Aspects of Change, (1961)
  7. ↑ The Motorway Archive — The origins of the London Orbital Motorway (M25) Archived 20 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  8. ↑ Saint, A., Politics and the people of London: the London County Council (1889–1965), (1989)
  9. ↑ London Local Government. The Times. 18 April 1921.
  10. ↑ Complex London: Big Task For Inquiry Commission. The Times. 5 August 1921.
  11. ↑ Greater London: Case for Central Authority: Area and Powers. The Times. 14 December 1921.
  12. ↑ Windsor and Greater London: Protests Against Proposals. The Times. 27 December 1921
  13. ↑ Greater London: Report of Royal Commission. The Times. 22 March 1923.
  14. ↑ 'The Government of London: the struggle for reform' by Gerald Rhodes (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1970 ISBN 0-297-00031-4
  15. ↑ Bathurst, David (2012). Walking the county high points of England. Chichester: Summersdale. pp. 82–85. ISBN 978-1-84-953239-6.
  16. ↑ The Greater London, Kent and Surrey Order, 1968
  17. ↑ The Greater London and Surrey Order, 1970
  18. ↑ Laurence Cawley (5 July 2013). "London Government Act: Essex, Kent, Surrey and Middlesex 50 years on". BBC News. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
  19. ↑ "House of Commons Hansard Debates for 23 Jun 2009 (pt 0008)". Publications.parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 5 August 2017. Retrieved 19 August 2017.
  20. ↑ Royal Mail (2004)
  21. ↑ Jones, B. et al., Politics UK, (2004)
  22. ↑ Arden Chambers Barristers, A Guide to the Greater London Authority Act, (2000)
  23. ↑ Cox, Michael (30 November 2021). "'London is moving east': City Hall's Crystal move confirmed for New Year". Newham Recorder. Archived from the original on 2 December 2021. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
  24. ↑ Westminster City Council – One City — An Introduction Archived 22 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ↑ HMSO, Lieutenancies Act 1997 Archived 30 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, (1997)
  26. 1 2 3 Travers, T., The Politics of London, (2004)
  27. ↑ Mills, A., Dictionary of London Place Names, (2001), Oxford
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  41. ↑ "T 08: Selected age groups for local authorities in the United Kingdom; estimated resident population; revised in light of the local authority population studies; Mid-2001 Population Estimates". Office for National Statistics. 22 August 2007. Archived from the original on 11 January 2007. Retrieved 22 August 2007.
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  54. ↑ Sister City Relationships between China and the United Kingdom Archived 11 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Chinese Embassy, 16 July 2015.
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