Vowels

The same vowels /a/, /ɛ/, /i/, /ɔ/, /u/ and syllabic /m̩/ are found in Tumbuka as in the neighbouring language Chewa.^[12]

Consonants

Tumbuka consonants are also similar to those of the neighbouring Chewa, but with certain differences. The continuant sounds /ɣ/, /β/ and /h/, which are absent or marginal in Chewa, are common in Tumbuka. Also common are the palatalised sounds /vʲ/, /fʲ/, /bʲ/, /pʲ/, /skʲ/, /zgʲ/, and /ɽʲ/. In Tumbuka there are no affricates such as Chichewa /psʲ/, /bzʲ/, /t͡s/, /d͡z/. The sounds /s/ and /z/ are never nasalised in Tumbuka, so that Chewa nsómba ('fish') = Tumbuka somba. The sound /ʃ/ is found only in foreign words such as shati ('shirt') and shuga ('sugar'). Tumbuka /ɽ/ sometimes corresponds to Chewa /d/, for example Chewa kudwala 'to be ill' = Tumbuka kulwala, Chewa kudya 'to eat' = Tumbuka kulya. The pronunciation of "sk" and "zg" varies according to dialect.

Tumbuka consonants are frequently either palatalised (i.e. followed by /y/) or rounded (i.e. followed by /w/.) Some of them can also be preceded by a homorganic nasal (/n/, /ng'/ or /m/). The possible consonant combinations are shown in the table below:

Tone

One of the main differences between Chewa and Tumbuka is that Chewa is a tonal language, whereas in Tumbuka there are no distinctions of tone between one word and another.

Tumbuka has a tonal accent but in a very limited way, in that every word, spoken in isolation, has the same falling tone on the penultimate syllable (which also coincides with stress).^[15] It is therefore not possible in Tumbuka to contrast two different words or two different tenses tonally, as it is in Chichewa and other Bantu languages. However, this penultimate falling tone occurs not on every word, but only on the last word of a phonological phrase; e.g. in the following sentence, only the second word has a tone, the first being toneless:^[16]

• ti-ku-phika sî:ma 'we are cooking porridge'

A greater variety of tonal patterns is found in the ideophones (expressive words) of Tumbuka; for example Low (yoyoyo 'disintegrating into small pieces'), High (fyá: 'swooping low (of birds)'), High-Low (phúli 'sound of thing bursting'), and Low-High (yií 'sudden disappearance'), etc.^[17]

Intonational tones are also used in Tumbuka; for example, in yes–no questions there is often a High-Low fall on the final syllable of the question:^[18]

• ku-limirâ-so ngô:mâ? 'are you also weeding the maize?'

There does not seem to be any consistent, direct correlation between tone in Tumbuka and focus.^[19]

Noun classes

As is usual with Bantu languages, Tumbuka nouns are grouped into different noun classes according to their singular and plural prefixes. Each class of noun has its own adjective, pronoun, and verb agreements, known as 'concords'. Where the agreements disagree with the prefix, the agreements take precedence in deciding the class of noun. For example, the noun katundu 'possessions', despite having the prefix ka-, is placed in class 1, since one says katundu uyu 'these possessions' using the class 1 demonstrative uyu. Malawians themselves (e.g. in the University of Malawi's Citumbuka dictionary) refer to the noun classes by traditional names such as "Mu-Ŵa-"; Bantu specialists, however, refer to the classes by numbers (1/2 etc.) corresponding to the noun-classes of other Bantu languages. Occasionally nouns do not correspond to the classes below, e.g. fumu 'chief' (class 9) irregularly has a plural mafumu in class 6.

Class 1/2 (Mu-Ŵa-)

Some nouns in this class lack the prefix Mu-:

• Munthu pl. ŵanthu (banthu) = person
• Muzungu pl. ŵazungu (bazungu) = foreigner, white man
• Mwana pl. ŵana (bana) = child
• Bulu pl. ŵabulu = donkey
• Sibweni pl. ŵasibweni = maternal uncle
• Katundu (no pl.) = goods, possessions

Class 3/4 (Mu-Mi-)

• Mutu pl. mitu = head
• Mkuyu pl. mikuyu = fig-tree
• Moyo pl. miyoyo = life
• Mtima pl. mitima = heart

Class 5/6 (Li-Ma-)

• Bele (bhele pl. mabele (mabhele) = breast
• Boma (bhoma) pl. maboma (mabhoma) = government, district
• Botolo (bhotolo) pl. mabotolo (mabhotolo) = bottle
• Fuko pl. mafuko = tribe, nation
• Jiso pl. maso = eye
• Maji (no singular) = water
• Phiri pl. mapiri = hill
• Suzgo pl. masuzgo = problem, trouble
• Woko pl. mawoko = hand

Class 7/8 (Ci-Vi-)

• Caka (chaka) pl. vyaka = year
• Caro (charo) pl. vyaro = country, land
• Ciŵeto (chibeto) pl. viŵeto (vibeto) = farm animal
• Cidakwa (chidakwa) pl. vidakwa = drunkard
• Cikoti (chikoti) pl. vikoti = whip

Class 9/10 (Yi-Zi-)

• Mbale pl. mbale (mambale) = plate
• Ndalama pl. ndalama = money
• Njelwa pl. njelwa = brick
• Nkhuku pl. nkhuku = chicken
• Somba pl. somba = fish

Class 11 (Lu-)

Some speakers treat words in this class as if they were in class 5/6.^[20]

• Lwande = side
• Lumbiri = fame
• Lulimi = tongue

Class 12/13 (Ka-Tu-)

• Kanthu (kantu) pl. tunthu (tuntu) = small thing
• Kamwana pl. tuŵana (tubana) = baby
• Kayuni pl. tuyuni = bird
• Tulo (no singular) = sleep

Class 14/6 (U-Ma-)

These nouns are frequently abstract and have no plural.

• Usiku = night
• Ulimi = farming
• Ulalo pl. maulalo = bridge
• Uta pl. mauta = bow

Class 15 (Ku-) Infinitive

• Kugula = to buy, buying
• Kwiba (kwibha) = to steal, stealing

Classes 16, 17, 18 (Pa-, Ku-, Mu-) Locative

• Pasi = underneath
• Kunthazi (kuntazi) = in front, before
• Mukati = inside

Concords

Verbs, adjectives, numbers, possessives, and pronouns in Tumbuka have to agree with the noun referred to. This is done by means of prefixes, infixes, or suffixes called 'concords' which differ according to the class of noun. Class 1 has the greatest variety of concords, differing for pronouns, subject prefix, object infix, numbers, adjectives, and possessives:^[21][22][23]

• Mwana uyu = this child
• Mwana yumoza = one child
• Mwana uyo = that child
• Mwana yose = the whole child
• Mwana waliyose = every child
• Mwana wakamuwona = the child saw him
• Mwana muchoko (coko) = the small child
• Mwana wa Khumbo = Khumbo's child
• Mwana wane = my child
• Mwana wawona = the child has seen

Other noun classes have a smaller variety of concords, as can be seen from the table below:

Subject prefix

All verbs must have a subject prefix, which agrees with the subject noun.^[24] For example, the word ciŵinda 'hunter' is class 7, so if it is subject, the verb has the prefix ci-:

ciŵinda ci-ka-koma nkhalamu = 'the hunter killed a lion'^[25]

It is also possible for the subject to be a locative noun (classes 16, 17, 18), in which case the verb has a locative prefix:^[26]

pamphasa pa-ka-khala mwana = 'on the mat there sat down a child'

The locative prefix ku- (class 17) is also used impersonally when discussing the weather:^[27]

kukuzizima madazi ghano = 'it's cold these days'

When the subject is a personal pronoun, the subject prefixes are as follows (the pronoun itself may be omitted, but not the subject prefix):

(ine) n-kha-gula = 'I bought' (nkha- stands for ni-ka-)

(iwe) u-ka-gula = 'you bought' (informal, singular)

(iyo)^[28] wa-ka-gula = 'he, she bought'

(ise) ti-ka-gula = 'we bought'

(imwe) mu-ka-gula = 'you bought' (plural or respectful)

(iwo) ŵa-ka-gula = 'they bought', 'he/she bought' (plural or respectful)

In the perfect tense, these are shortened to n-a-, w-a-, w-a-, t-a-, mw-a-, ŵ-a-, e.g. t-a-gula 'we have bought'.

In Karonga dialect, in the 3rd person singular a- is found instead of wa-, and the 3rd plural is wa- instead of ŵa-, except in the perfect tense, when wa- and ŵa- are used.^[29]

Object-marker

To indicate the object, an infix can be added to the verb immediately before the verb root. Generally speaking, the object-marker is optional:^[30]

Pokani wa(yi)gula galimoto = 'Pokani has bought a car' (class 9)

Changa waka(mu)nyamula katundu = 'Changa carried the luggage' (class 1)

The object-marker agrees with the class of the object, as shown on the table of concords above.

The object-marker can also be a locative (classes 16, 17, or 18):^[31]

Kondwani wa(pa)kwera pa nyumba = 'Kondwani has climbed on top of the house'

The locative markers for personal pronouns are as follows:^[32]

waniona (ine) = 'he has seen me'

wakuona (iwe) = 'he has seen you'

wamuona = 'he has seen him/her'

wationa = 'he has seen us'

wamuonani = 'he has seen you' (plural or respectful)

waŵaona = 'he has seen them'

Tenses

Tenses in Tumbuka are made partly by adding infixes, and partly by suffixes. Unlike Chichewa, tones do not form any part of the distinction between one tense and another.

In the past a distinction is made between hodiernal tenses (referring to events of today) and remote tenses (referring to events of yesterday or some time ago). However, the boundary between recent and remote is not exact.^[33]

Another distinction is made between past and perfect tenses. When a perfect tense is used it carries an implication that the resulting situation still exists at the time of speaking, for example: 'the pumpkins have spread (zathambalala) over the garden'.^[34] The present perfect can also be used in verbs expressing a current situation such as ndakhala 'I am sitting' or ndakondwa 'I am pleased'. The remote perfect is used for events which happened some time ago but of which the effects still apply today, such as libwe lilikuwa 'the rock has fallen' or walikutayika 'he (has) died'.^[35]

The future tenses similarly distinguish near from remote events. Some tenses imply that the event will take place elsewhere, for example ndamukuchezga 'I will go and visit'.^[36]

Compound tenses are also found in Tumbuka, such as wati wagona 'he had slept', wakaŵa kuti wafumapo 'he had just left' and wazamukuŵa waguliska 'he will have sold'.^[37]

Other future tenses are given by Vail (1972) and others.^[42]

In the 1st person singular, ni-ku- and ni-ka- are shortened to nkhu- and nkha-: nkhuluta 'I am going', 'I go', nkhalutanga 'I used to go'.^[43]

Negative verbs

To make the negative of a verb in Tumbuka, the word yayi or cha(ra) is added at or near the end of the clause. It seems that yayi is preferred by younger speakers:^[44]

wakulemba kalata yayi

'he is not writing a letter'

tizamugwira ntchito cha machero

'we will not work tomorrow'

With the present perfect tense, however, a separate form exists, adding -nda- and ending in -e:^[45]

enya, nakumana nawo

'yes, I have met him'

yayi, nindakumane nawo

'no, I haven't met him'

Helpful phrases

• Enya = Yes
• Yayi = No
• Yebo (yeŵo) = Thank you
• Taonga = We are thankful
• Nkhukhumba chakurya! = I want some food !
• Munganipako chakurya? = could you give me some food?
• Ine nkhuyowoya chiTumbuka yayi! = I do not speak chiTumbuka!
• Yendani makola = Travel well.
• Nkukhumba maji yakumwa = I would like water to drink.

Greetings

• Mwawuka uli? = Good morning. (How did you wake up?)
• Tawuka makola. Kwali imwe? = Fine. And you? (I woke up well. I don't know about you?)
• Muli uli? = How are you?
• Nili makola, kwali imwe? = I am fine, how are you?
• Mwatandala uli? = Good afternoon. (How did you spend the day?)
• Natandala makola. Kwali imwe? = Good afternoon. How are you? (I spent the day well. I don't know about you?)
• Monile = somewhat more formal than "Hi". Perhaps best translated as "Greetings".
• Tionanenge = We shall meet again.

People

The plural ba- (ŵa-) is often used for politeness when referring to elders:

• Munyamata = boy
• Banyamata (ŵanyamata) = boys
• Musungwana = girl
• Basungwana (ŵasungwana) = girls
• Bamwali (ŵamwali) = young ladies
• Banchembere (ŵancembele) = a woman with babies
• Bamama (ŵamama) = mother
• Badada(ŵadhadha) = dad
• Bagogo (ŵagogo) = grandmother
• Babuya (ŵabhuya) = grandmother, also used when addressing old female persons
• Basekulu (ŵasekulu) = grandfather
• Bankhazi (ŵankhazi) = paternal aunt
• ŵa/Bamama ŵa/bachoko / ŵa/bakulu = maternal aunt usually your mother's younger/older sister
• Basibweni (ŵasibweni) = maternal uncle
• Badada(ŵadhadha) bachoko / bakulu = paternal uncle usually your father's younger/older brother
• Mudumbu(mudhumbu) wane = my brother/ sister (for addressing a sibling of the opposite sex)
• Muchoko wane / muzuna wane/ munung'una wane = my young brother / sister (for addressing a sibling of the same sex)
• Mukuru wane / mulala wane = my elder brother / sister (for addressing a sibling of the same sex)

Verbs

• Kusebela (Kuseŵera) = to play
• Kuseka = to laugh
• Kurya = to eat
• Kugona = to sleep
• Kwenda = to walk
• Kuchimbila = to run
• Kulemba = to write
• Kuchapa = to do laundry
• Kugeza = to bath
• Kuphika = to cook
• Kulima = to dig / cultivate
• Kupanda = to plant
• Kuvina = to dance
• Kwimba = to sing

Animals

• Fulu = tortoise
• Kalulu = hare
• Gwere = hippo
• Chimbwi = hyena
• Njoka = snake
• Nkhumba = pig
• Ng'ombe = cow
• Nchebe (Ncheŵe) = dog
• Chona/pusi/kiti = cat
• Mbelele = sheep
• Nkalamu = lion
• Mbuzi = goat
• Nkhuku = chicken